Culture Focus
K-Food - 3
The Birth of K-Food: History of 20th Century Korean Food
Ⅲ. Dining Scene in the Colonial Period
1. Colonization and the Emergence of Modern Restaurants in Seoul
On September 30, 1910, the Japanese Government General of Korea promulgated the establishment of its headquarters and affiliated offices in accordance with the Japanese Imperial Ordinance No. 319 and from October 1, 1910, it exercised full power over the legislative, judicial, executive, and military sectors. Japan adopted a colonial system of governance in which a relatively small number of ruling authorities, consisting of administrators, soldiers, police officers, and teachers, worked on the Korean Peninsula for a certain period of time before returning home. The colonial policy of the Japanese Government General of Korea, centered on this small group, was aimed at exploiting the human and material resources of the Korean Peninsula.
In order to govern effectively, the Japanese Government General of Korea reorganized the peninsula into a modern space. By the late 1910s, modern cities had been established throughout the peninsula. Colonial modern cities were “colonial dual cities” that separated pre-modern and modern spaces, as well as residential areas for Koreans and Japanese. Within these cities, various spaces offered industrialized Korean, Japanese, Chinese, and Western cuisine.
Since the 1900s, Seoul has been home to all kinds of restaurants. Upscale Korean restaurants (Joseon Yoriok) coexisted with bars, hot pot restaurants, cold noodle eateries, rice soup places, seolleongtang (milky beef bone soup) restaurants, and bibimbap spots. The clientele of Joseon restaurants came from all walks of life, including Korean gentlemen, laborers, and individuals of all ages. In more casual settings like bars and mid-range restaurants, patrons commonly enjoyed their meals while seated or standing at shared tables.
2. Seolleongtang and Bibimbap: Quick Bites! Korean-style Fast Food
Seolleongtang and bibimbap were the most popular dishes on the menus of eateries in Seoul’s modern cityscape. During the Joseon dynasty, these dishes were well-suited for communal dining. Seolleongtang and other rice-based soups were favored during winter, while bibimbap in the summer. Consequently, seolleongtang and bibimbap emerged as quintessential Korean fast food options.
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Seolleongtang is made with various beef parts including head, leg bones, knee cartilage, shank, brisket, and intestines, which simmered for over 10 hours. The broth of seolleongtang has a milky color because the white colloid from the meat and bones is dissolved in the broth, so newspapers in the colonial period called it “seollnongtang (雪濃湯 snowy soup).” The Chinese characters mean that the color is as white as snow (雪) and the taste is rich (濃). The December 1 1929 issue of the magazine Byeolgeon’gon well describes the seolleongtang restaurants in Seoul at the time. A customer walks into a seolleongtang restaurant and says, “Give me a bowl of rice,” and sits down at the table. In less than a minute, he is served an earthen pot of greasy meat broth and a plate of kkakdugi (cubed radish kimchi). The customer adds green onions, red chili powder, salt, and minced spices to taste, then slurps down the broth. |
Bibimbap is a bowl of rice mixed with assorted vegetables and a dollop of soybean or spicy gochujang sauce. Recipes for bibimbap in cookbooks from the late Joseon dynasty included fried kelp and boiled beef liver along with vegetables. These ingredients were mixed with rice, stirred with sesame salt and plenty of oil, and served in a bowl. According to the cookbook Various Korean Recipes (Joseon yori jebeop) published in 1921, radish sprouts and bean sprouts were placed into a pot, heated, and then mixed with rice and other ingredients and seasonings were added to the pot and stirred with chopsticks. Unlike today's bibimbap, the rice was stir-fried with other ingredients before being served.
| However, the recipe for bibimbap in restaurants was different. The December 1 1929 issue of the magazine Byeolgeon’gon describes a bibimbap sold at a restaurant in Jinju, South Gyeongsang province. First, bean sprouts, bracken, mung bean sprouts, and yellow mung bean jelly (cheongpomuk) were placed on the rice, followed by finely chopped raw beef (yukhoe) and a dollop of spicy gochujang sauce. At home, to make a large amount of bibimbap at once, the ingredients are stirred together and served in individual bowls, but at the restaurant, the ingredients are placed on top of the rice and customers are encouraged to mix them themselves. At home, the family could eat the mixed bibimbap as soon as it was made, but in a restaurant, it was better to add the ingredients to the rice each time a customer ordered to maintain the flavor of the food. |  |
3. Charcoal-grilled Bulgogi in Pyeongyang and Grilled Beef Ribs (Galbi) in Seoul
Bulgogi is a thin, wide cut of beef or pork that is marinated in a sauce made of soy sauce, green onions, garlic, sesame salt, black pepper powder, and sugar, and then grilled over a fire. During the colonial period, Pyongyang’s bulgogi and Seoul’s grilled beef ribs (Galbi)became famous throughout the country.
Bulgogi is a thin, wide cut of beef or pork that is marinated in a sauce made of soy sauce, green onions, garlic, sesame salt, black pepper powder, and sugar, and then grilled over a fire. During the colonial period, Pyongyang’s bulgogi and Seoul’s grilled beef ribs (Galbi)became famous throughout the country.
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During the colonial era in Pyeongyang, charcoal-grilled beef gained widespread popularity. The distinctive flavor of Pyeongyang beef earned it the moniker “Pyeongyang beef” during this period. In the spring, Morandae, a park on Mt. Moranbong in Pyongyang, became a vibrant scene filled with the enticing aroma of grilled meat and the lively sounds of people indulging in food and drink. Within the Morandae forest, restaurants such as Eulsongjeong, Bonghwanggak, and Girimjeong emerged as renowned destinations specializing in bulgogi, which was grilled over charcoal before being served. |
In contrast, residents of Seoul had a penchant for charcoal-grilled beef ribs. In 1939, the emergence of naengmyeon restaurants in Nagwon-dong introduced a novel culinary trend pairing grilled ribs with cold noodles. These establishments became popular spots for patrons who frequented theaters, other dining establishments, cafes, and bars in the late evening. The prevailing belief that cold noodles were effective for sobering up drew customers to naengmyeon restaurants, where it became customary to order a serving of cold noodles alongside two ribs as a matter of course.
4. Japchae: Koreanizing Overseas Chinese Cuisine
In the Joseon period, japchae featured long strips of diverse ingredients, sprinkled with mustard and combined. Today, it has evolved into a stir-fried blend of assorted vegetables and meats, complemented by boiled glass noodles known as dangmyeon. The noodles are crafted by grinding potato or sweet potato starch into a powder and kneading it into a dough. Originally a favorite of the Chinese, dangmyeon was known to Koreans by the Chinese population who began to settle in Incheon and Seoul after the Imo Mutiny in the summer of 1882.
4. Japchae: Koreanizing Overseas Chinese Cuisine
In the Joseon period, japchae featured long strips of diverse ingredients, sprinkled with mustard and combined. Today, it has evolved into a stir-fried blend of assorted vegetables and meats, complemented by boiled glass noodles known as dangmyeon. The noodles are crafted by grinding potato or sweet potato starch into a powder and kneading it into a dough. Originally a favorite of the Chinese, dangmyeon was known to Koreans by the Chinese population who began to settle in Incheon and Seoul after the Imo Mutiny in the summer of 1882.
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During the 1920s, Seoul boasted over 200 Chinese restaurants, making Chinese cuisine a familiar choice for Koreans. However, with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, over 80 percent of these establishments in Seoul closed, either permanently or temporarily. While tangsuyuk (a meat dish with sweet and sour sauce) and Chinese-style japchae were once enjoyed by Koreans at these restaurants, the difficulty in accessing Chinese-style japchae prompted Koreans to start making their own Korean-style japchae at home. On the March 6, 1930 the Dong-A Ilbo featured a recipe for Korean-style japchae by Song Geumseon, a home economics teacher at Dongdeok Girls’ High School. She emphasized the use of Japanese soy sauce to flavor Korean japchae. While Chinese japchae involves stir-frying ingredients in a wok, Korean japchae distinguishes itself by blending ingredients with Japanese soy sauce and sugar. This culinary fusion reflects the collaborative influence of Korean, Chinese, and Japanese communities residing on the Korean Peninsula during the first half of the 20th century, when the region was under Imperial Japanese rule. |
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5. Imperial Food in the Colony and Colonial Food in the Empire
During the colonial period, Koreans employed as laborers in Japan ate grilled cow intestines, a dish not commonly consumed by the Japanese. In the late 1930s, numerous restaurants offering cold noodles and grilled ribs emerged near Korean communities in Osaka. These establishments featured a distinctive dining setup with a central table brazier fueled by charcoal. Customers were encouraged to engage in a hands-on experience, lighting the brazier themselves and grilling the ribs to their liking. This method garnered enthusiasm from Japanese patrons, leading Korean restaurants to expand their offerings beyond ribs to include various cuts of beef.
The term for this cuisine in Japanese was “yakiniku (焼肉).” Presently, yakiniku signifies a dish featuring meat and offal, sourced from various animals like beef and pork, covered in sauce, and grilled over an open flame. Back in the 1900s, the bustling alleys of downtown Tokyo were brimming with yakiniku and yakitori (grilled chicken) establishments operating as food stalls. Owners would skillfully skewer beef or chicken parts onto bamboo sticks, marinate them in Japanese soy sauce, grill them over charcoal, and sell them individually to customers. The compact stalls offered minimal seating, prompting patrons, primarily budget-conscious laborers, to stand while enjoying their skewers. The diverse clientele included foreigners, such as Koreans and Indians.
During the colonial period, Koreans employed as laborers in Japan ate grilled cow intestines, a dish not commonly consumed by the Japanese. In the late 1930s, numerous restaurants offering cold noodles and grilled ribs emerged near Korean communities in Osaka. These establishments featured a distinctive dining setup with a central table brazier fueled by charcoal. Customers were encouraged to engage in a hands-on experience, lighting the brazier themselves and grilling the ribs to their liking. This method garnered enthusiasm from Japanese patrons, leading Korean restaurants to expand their offerings beyond ribs to include various cuts of beef.
The term for this cuisine in Japanese was “yakiniku (焼肉).” Presently, yakiniku signifies a dish featuring meat and offal, sourced from various animals like beef and pork, covered in sauce, and grilled over an open flame. Back in the 1900s, the bustling alleys of downtown Tokyo were brimming with yakiniku and yakitori (grilled chicken) establishments operating as food stalls. Owners would skillfully skewer beef or chicken parts onto bamboo sticks, marinate them in Japanese soy sauce, grill them over charcoal, and sell them individually to customers. The compact stalls offered minimal seating, prompting patrons, primarily budget-conscious laborers, to stand while enjoying their skewers. The diverse clientele included foreigners, such as Koreans and Indians.
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Similar to yakiniku, myeongnanjeot (salted pollack roe) is often perceived as a Japanese delicacy by many in Japan. The term “myeongnan” specifically denotes pollack roe. In Japanese, myeongnanjeot is referred to as mentaiko (明太子), literally translating to pollack roe. Another name for mentaiko is karashi mentaiko (辛子明太子), where “karashi” signifies chili peppers. In essence, karashi mentaiko involves pollack roe marinated in salt and infused with red chili peppers. The broader Japanese category for salted and fermented seafood flesh, guts, and eggs is termed “shiokara (鹽辛).” Therefore, they consider myeongnanjeot to be a Japanese food, a variant of shiokara. |
Yet, myeongnanjeot was a staple among the people of Hamgyeong province during the Joseon dynasty. The process involved salting fish eggs, partially sun-drying them, creating a side dish enjoyed with rice or during drinking sessions. Myeongnanjeot was a distinctive fish roe preparation. However, due to the perishable nature of pollack roe, which lacks a hard shell and tends to spoil quickly at room temperature, immediate salting was imperative after catching the pollock.
During the early 1930s, Japanese-operated pollack roe shops pioneered a processing technique involving washing, draining, salting, and seasoning the roe with red pepper powder before storing it in wooden barrels. Notably, among the Japanese establishments handling pollack roe in Korea, Higuchi Shop (樋口商店) was at the forefront of adopting advanced processing technology. When the shop shipped pollack roe to Shimonoseki, they referred to it as “shiokara” rather than “mentaiko.”
Following the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, a ferry service was established between Shimonoseki and Busan. In 1907, Higuchi relocated his shop from Wonsan to Busan, recognizing the increased efficiency of shipping pollock roe from Busan to Shimonoseki. This move proved advantageous as there was a robust demand for pollock roe among Japanese settlers in Manchuria, and Busan’s well-connected rail network facilitated seamless distribution. With railroads linking Wonsan to Seoul, Seoul to Busan, and Busan to Shenyang in Manchuria, Busan emerged as a strategic intermediate point for distribution.
Until the 1970s, scholars of food history predominantly asserted that imperial food spread to the colonies in a one-sided manner. However, starting in the 1980s, scholars in this field have increasingly showcased instances where food from the colonies made its way to the empire, after the dissolution of the imperialcolonial relationship. Japan’s yakiniku and karashi mentaiko serve as noteworthy examples of this phenomenon.
During the early 1930s, Japanese-operated pollack roe shops pioneered a processing technique involving washing, draining, salting, and seasoning the roe with red pepper powder before storing it in wooden barrels. Notably, among the Japanese establishments handling pollack roe in Korea, Higuchi Shop (樋口商店) was at the forefront of adopting advanced processing technology. When the shop shipped pollack roe to Shimonoseki, they referred to it as “shiokara” rather than “mentaiko.”
Following the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, a ferry service was established between Shimonoseki and Busan. In 1907, Higuchi relocated his shop from Wonsan to Busan, recognizing the increased efficiency of shipping pollock roe from Busan to Shimonoseki. This move proved advantageous as there was a robust demand for pollock roe among Japanese settlers in Manchuria, and Busan’s well-connected rail network facilitated seamless distribution. With railroads linking Wonsan to Seoul, Seoul to Busan, and Busan to Shenyang in Manchuria, Busan emerged as a strategic intermediate point for distribution.
Until the 1970s, scholars of food history predominantly asserted that imperial food spread to the colonies in a one-sided manner. However, starting in the 1980s, scholars in this field have increasingly showcased instances where food from the colonies made its way to the empire, after the dissolution of the imperialcolonial relationship. Japan’s yakiniku and karashi mentaiko serve as noteworthy examples of this phenomenon.
Infokorea 2024
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.
