Culture Focus

Ⅴ. Dining Scene in the Cold War

1. Cold War and State Control of Food
On September 2, 1945, the signing of the surrender document by the Japanese ended the six-year-long World War II and ushered in the era of the “Cold War.” The term “Cold War” refers to the political, military, and economic tensions that unfolded between the United States and the Soviet Union from 1947 to 1991. Within the framework of the Cold War, the United States solidified its hegemony by supplying resources, including surplus agricultural products, to Japan, Taiwan, India, and South Korea. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union extended resources and technology to Eastern European countries, Cuba, and North Korea.

U.S. aid to South Korea was provided over the three periods. The first spanned from 1945 to 1953, when emergency relief aid was provided during the Korean War and the U.S. military government. The second period, from 1953 to 1961, unfolded after the end of the war, featuring comprehensive aid efforts. During this phase, the U.S. extended military and surplus agricultural aid under the Mutual Security Act (MSA). The third period, from 1962 to 1993, was characterized by loans, signifying that the United States provided financial assistance to the South Korean government under the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA). Additionally, surplus agricultural aid persisted until the 1970s.

U.S. surplus agricultural aid came with strings attached. Upon the initial signing of PL480( Public Law 480) between the U.S. and South Korean governments in 1956, an agreement was made to accrue the sales revenue of imported agricultural products in South Korean currency. A portion of this revenue would cover the operational costs of U.S. aid agencies in South Korea, while the remaining funds were designated to support the country’s economic development and military capabilities, as mutually decided. U.S. wheat farmers benefitted from selling surplus wheat, which would otherwise go to waste, to underdeveloped countries like South Korea. The U.S. government, in turn, utilized the aid rationale to strengthen military ties with the South Korean government.

The government of Park Chung-hee, who came to power in a military coup in 1961, effectively capitalized on U.S. surplus agricultural products. Adopting the recommendation of incorporating rice mixed with other grains and flour-based food to conserve rice and enhance diets with surplus U.S. wheat, Park’s government mandated that only rice be cooked as a staple food, and that makgeolli (unrefined rice wine), cheongju (refined rice wine), soju (distilled liquor), and tteokbokki (stir-fried rice cake) be made with U.S. flour or foreign grains. The campaign to promote flour-based food implemented by strong administrative forces resulted in an increase in the consumption of flour-based food in Korea since the mid-1980s.

2. From Japanese Chicken Ramen to Korean Beef Ramyeon
In 1946, post-war Japan grappled with an unprecedented food shortage. The occupying U.S. military responded by distributing surplus wheat, their agricultural excess, to Japanese households as a form of relief. Momofuku Ando (安藤百福, 1910-2007, Chinese name Wu Baifu), a Taiwanese native who had been running an undershirt business in Osaka since 1933, developed instant noodles in 1948 from free wheat from the U.S. Inspired by the oil-fried noodles crafted in Taiwan and southern China to prevent spoilage in warm climates, Ando developed a method of deep-frying noodles in high-temperature oil, drying them rapidly, and immediately packaging them. With just the addition of hot water, these noodles transformed into the now-famous Chicken Ramen (チキンラーメン).

In June 1958, Momofuku Ando held a chicken ramen tasting event in the basement food section of the Hankyu Department Store in Umeda, Osaka’s bustling district. Despite its higher price of thirty-five yen compared to the six-yen cost of a serving of udon noodles at the time, chicken ramen quickly gained popularity, earning the moniker “magic ramen.” Its success prompted other food companies to follow suit, introducing similar instant noodle products to the market. In June 1962, Kiyosumi Okui (奧井淸澄, 1919-1973) of Myojo Food Company developed instant ramen with a separate soup base.

When South Korean Samyang Foods’ CEO, Chun Joong-yoon (全仲潤, 1919-2014), learned about the popularity of instant noodles in Japan, he traveled to Japan, which did not have diplomatic relations with South Korea, in 1962 to import manufacturing machinery. However, he had to abandon the idea when he realized the exorbitant cost of Momofuku Ando’s patent rights and manufacturing equipment. While despairing in Japan, Chun met Kiyosumi Okui, the owner of the second largest instant noodle maker in Japan at the time, through a mutual acquaintance.

When Okui met Chun, he said that Japan had rebuilt its economy after serving as a supply base for the U.S. Army during the Korean War, and he immediately promised to help. Afterward, Okui provided him with all the facilities and technology for free. Chun adapted the Japanese word “ramen” to “ramyeon” in Korean. On September 15, 1963, Korea’s first instant ramyeon, “Instant Samyang Ramyeon,” finally hit the market. Samyang Ramyeon featured a soup base served separately from the noodles, akin to Myojo’s.

The initial reaction of instant noodles by Koreans was unfavorable for two reasons. Firstly, the term “ramyeon” was unfamiliar to Koreans at the time, and many associated it with “ramyeon (羅棉),” meaning cloth. Secondly, instant noodles weren’t widely considered a staple in their rice-based diet. However, newspaper advertisements and street tasting events gradually shifted this perception. By December 1963, the first year of its release, Samyang Ramyeon sold 200,000 bags. Surprisingly, by May 1964, sales had tripled to 730,000 bags in less than half a year.

Later, Lotte Corporation (now Nongshim) introduced “Beef Ramyeon” in 1965, and it became an instant hit. The product featured beef, beef bones, and chili pepper powder in the soup base. For Koreans, who favored beef broth over chicken broth, “Beef Ramyeon” was perceived as having a beefy essence. The ramyeon manufacturer dried beloved Korean ingredients like chili pepper, garlic, and onions and incorporated them into the soup base. This adaptation of flavors tailored to Korean preferences led to the development of a distinctive taste that set Korean instant noodles apart from their Japanese counterparts. Even today, Koreans prioritize the flavor of the soup when selecting instant noodles, considering it more crucial than the quality of the noodles themselves.

3. Cooking Oil from American Soybeans, Poultry Farming, and Fried Chickens
In March 1959, the U.S. government announced that it could no longer cover the expenses of the South Korean army, which had persisted after the Korean War, and demanded that the South Korean government assume these costs annually. Eventually, the South Korean government agreed, paying 10.8 million dollars for uniforms and food for the South Korean army in 1960 to 1961. Among the provisions supplied by the U.S. government to the Korean army were soybeans valued at 840,000 dollars. In 1967, the South Korean government agreed to buy 14,850 tons of U.S. soybeans. The contract was not with the U.S. government, but with a major U.S. grain company. The U.S. soybeans were used to produce affordable cooking oil, while the soybean cake, a byproduct of oil extraction, served as feed for chickens.

As the price of beef skyrocketed in the late 1960s due to the increased beef consumption, the South Korean government recognized the necessity of developing a high-quality chicken industry as an alternative. In North America, poultry farmers were raising ‘broilers’ for meat production. Broilers are chickens weighing between 1.5 to 2.0 kilograms and are typically 8 to 10 weeks old. In 1969, a sudden increase in demand for beef in South Korea led to a meat shortage, and broilers were increasingly consumed as a viable substitute.

At the same time, the surge in cooking oil production, particularly soybean oil, led to the emergence of establishments selling whole chickens deep-fried in oil, commonly referred to as “whole chicken houses.” These establishments became widespread throughout the markets, offering people the delightful combination of crispy texture and tender flavor derived from high-temperature oil frying. Inspired by the fried chicken enjoyed by American soldiers stationed in Korea, it became a norm for Koreans during that time to include fried chicken in their outings, family gatherings, picnics, and vacations.

By the mid-1970s, soybean oil had become the predominant cooking oil. With a steady rise in demand for cooking oil, the government found it necessary to import foreign cooking oils. Beginning in 1973, the U.S. government actively promoted corn oil, sunflower oil, and soybean oil as export products to South Korea. As domestic demand for cooking oil surged, imports continued to rise annually. In Korean society around the end of the Cold War, the importation of American cooking oil played a significant role in shaping American-style fried chicken into a Korean culinary phenomenon.

4. Hot Stone Pot Bibimbap: Elevating Rice to a Savory Delight
The Green Revolution was a policy aimed at enhancing grain varieties to boost harvests and ensure food supply. It involved a highly modernized approach focused on increasing the production of staple food grains through improved varieties, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides. The South Korean government initiated preparations for the Green Revolution in rural areas in 1970, securing long-term financial loans from the World Bank and the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Central to this initiative was the improvement of rice varieties, with the primary goal of developing strains that yielded higher crops, were more resistant to floods, typhoons, and diseases, and were less susceptible to insect damage.

In 1964, Heo Moon-hoe (1927-2010), a professor at Seoul National University’s College of Agriculture, undertook a 24-month assignment at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, focusing on enhancing rice varieties. Employing the pistils of IR8, an indica variety (commonly grown in southern China, the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and India) from IRRI, Heo successfully obtained approximately 20 rice seeds in early March 1966. This hybrid rice, named IR667, marked the inception of Korea’s Green Revolution. Following extensive trials, one of the samples demonstrated promising results, prompting the initiation of trial cultivation and seed multiplication.

The Rural Development Administration of Korea designated the variety “Tongil (unification),” expressing the aspiration that its abundant rice production could contribute to reunification efforts with North Korea. Tongil rice was initially cultivated in 1971 and expanded in 1973. However, farmers initially showed hesitancy, despite the high yields, due to challenges associated with adopting new technologies and the absence of reliable yield indicators. In response, the government sought to incentivize Tongil rice cultivation by providing farm financing through agricultural cooperatives and offering preferential treatment in the supply of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. In November 1976, the government announced a historic rice harvest of 36.215 million bags (seom, ≒180 liters) or 5.215 million tons, attributed to the expansion of Tongil rice fields.

Consumers struggled to adapt to the taste of Tongil rice. Consequently, in early 1977, the government introduced new rice varieties, Suwon 264 and Iri 327, to promote their cultivation and reduce the planting of Tongil-type varieties. Despite achieving success in terms of yield, they failed to win public favor. In 1981, under the military government of Chun Doo-hwan, the policy of promoting Tongil-type rice was abandoned. Subsequently, in 1992, the government decided to cease its purchase.

When faced with the challenge of serving less palatable Tongil rice in restaurants, a new culinary innovation emerged—the Hot Stone Pot Bibimbap. This variation of bibimbap features a combination of meat, vegetables, and various seasonings, cooked over a fire in a stone pot. The Jeonju Central Hall, originally from Jeonju but with a branch in Myeongdong, downtown Seoul, introduced this unique dish in 1981, presenting bibimbap in bowls crafted from amphibole of Jangsu, South Jeolla province. The beef tartare bibimbap, served sizzling in a stone pot, offered a distinctive flavor that set it apart from the traditional one. While the rice’s taste is crucial for the overall bibimbap experience, the hot stone pot bibimbap succeeded in enhancing the rice’s flavor, even if it wasn’t exceptionally tasty. This creative use of a hot stone pot played a pivotal role in elevating Jeonju Bibimbap to nationwide fame.

5. Aspiration for Rice Self-sufficiency
The Japanese rice variety Akibare (秋晴), introduced in Korea around 1965, gained popularity among Koreans for its chewy texture. Both farmers and consumers held Akibare in higher regard, noting that Tongil rice couldn’t compare in flavor. Due to Tongil rice’s lack of popularity, the Rural Development Administration began developing new varieties of Japonica rice in the 1980s, focusing on breeds that offered higher yields. However, consumers have also been enjoying the Koshihikari variety of rice, developed in Japan in 1956, alongside Akibare since the 1990s.

Enrique C. Ochoa, a U.S. historian specializing in Mexico’s food history, highlighted that the Green Revolution, initiated in the early 1940s by the Rockefeller Foundation and scientists of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Mexican government, swiftly extended to key Cold War allies worldwide post-World War II, including Turkey, India, and the Philippines. Despite early success stories with enhanced rice varieties leading to increased production, the reality was that it didn’t necessarily elevate the economic status of all farmers. Instead, South Korea’s mid-1970s Green Revolution, characterized by “Tongil rice (Unification rice),” reflected Park Chung-hee’s nationalist and authoritarian mindset, aiming to influence North Koreans with rice in the challenging Cold War landscape.

Infokorea 2024
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.