Culture Focus
K-Food - 4
The Birth of K-Food: History of 20th Century Korean Food
Ⅳ. Wartime Dining Scene
1. Pacific and Korean Wars and Substitute Food
The Great Depression, which began in 1929, swept through almost all capitalist countries by the end of 1933, and its aftermath lasted until 1939. Under these circumstances, the Japanese Army was equipped with the ideology of militarism that prioritizes military buildup and preparation for war. On September 18, 1931, Japan launched the “Manchurian Incident” and occupied northeastern China, establishing its puppet state of Manchukuo the following year. Subsequently, in July 1937, Japan unilaterally invaded China, seizing the opportunity presented by a clash between Japanese and Chinese troops in the suburbs of Beijing (Sino-Japanese War). On December 8, 1941 (December 7, at U.S. time), Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii without declaring war on the United States, triggering the Pacific War. This expanded World War II to the Asia and Pacific regions.
Until the surrender declaration by the Japanese Emperor Showa (r.1926-1989) on August 15, 1945, the eight-year-long Sino-Japanese War epitomized the full-scale pursuit of Japanese militarism. Colonized Koreans were also forced to adopt the identity of “imperial subjects” under the ideology of “Japan and Korea are one.” The Japanese Government General of Korea reorganized the economy into a wartime framework to increase the production of military supplies and transport them to the battlefield.
The essence of the wartime economy was to operate the production system for goods needed for war. To this end, the Japanese Government General of Korea wielded coercive control over the production and consumption of daily necessities such as food, vegetables, fruits, beef, pork, chicken, sugar, chili pepper, soy sauce, soybean paste, cooking oil, snack foods, and fuel. This policy of controlling basic necessities had a major impact on the diets of urban residents who lived far from agricultural production areas. In response to the dietary challenges, the Japanese Government General of Korea enforced a nationwide campaign to secure substitute food for colonized Koreans, such as gathering vegetables and making kimchi at home.
On the second page of the May 4, 1938, commemorative issue of the Korea Daily News (Maeil Shinbo), an article under “Home Feature” highlighted a roundtable discussion among intellectuals on the topic of “How to Improve Family Life.” The participants were leading home economics experts of the time, who advocated the substitution of dried anchovies for beef. Kim Bogin, a physician, emphasized that while anchovies are only slightly lower in fat than beef, they do not fall short in terms of protein and calories compared to beef. In fact, during the colonial period, Koreans did not consider anchovies as a food. The Japanese, on the other hand, used dried anchovies for soup broths. Kim Bogin suggested adopting the Japanese approach by incorporating anchovies into stews and soups as a substitute for beef.
Today, dried anchovies are enjoyed in various forms—dipped in red chili paste (gochujang), stir-fried in oil, or used to create broth for noodles. In fact, this culinary approach emerged postliberation. During this period, despite increased fish catches, the widespread export to Japan was restricted. Consequently, in the 1960s, media campaigns emerged, promoting the nutritional value, flavor, and diverse recipes associated with dried anchovies. It was only after the 1970s that Koreans began to regard dried anchovies as an important food ingredient.
2. Somyeon, from Rice Substitute to Feast Noodles
In the 1940s, along with rice with mixed grains, flour-based food emerged as a notable strategy for rice conservation. Starting in the 1930s, the Japanese Government General of Korea strongly encouraged the wheat cultivation in rural areas throughout South Korea. Traditionally, winter wheat, sown in winter and harvested before the rainy season in July, was the predominant type grown on the peninsula. Despite initial resistance from southern farmers due to the simultaneous planting requirements with barley, yields began to rise by the late 1930s. By the summer of 1939, Korea’s winter wheat harvest was sufficient for seed and domestic consumption, even accommodating some for the production of soy sauce.
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In 1942, the Japanese Government General of Korea mandated the adoption of substitute foods for rice three days a month. The challenge was determining an appropriate replacement for rice, and one viable option was somyeon, a type of noodle made from wheat flour. At the time. the Japanese method of preparing somyeon involved kneading the flour with salted water, allowing it to rest for approximately a day, widening it with a rolling pin and then hand-rolling it to pressing it with a wooden roller, widening it, cuttingcut it into thin strips small pieces, and letting it sit in a container for a period. Subsequently, the dough (noodlelike) strips were unfurled by hand or was either hand-rolled or processed by machine, dried, and then blanched in hot water before undergoing a cold-water wash. |
Since the 1930s, somyeon has been machine-made. The process involves kneading the flour by hand, feeding it into a machine for thin rolling, and then passing it through a noodle-cutting machine, resulting in rows of fine noodles. These noodles are then hung on wooden sticks to sun-dry and transform into dried noodles. Starting from the late 1960s, noodles paired with a broth made from dried anchovies acquired the moniker “feast noodles (janchi-guksu)” and gained popularity as a meal substitute.
3. Bindae-tteok (mung bean pancake): Street Food in Liberated Space
On August 15, 1945, colonial Korea was liberated, but life for Koreans was little better than during the colonial period. Korea was divided along the 38th parallel, and trusteeship was imposed by the U.S. military in the south and the Soviet military in the north. At the time of liberation, there were an estimated 5 million overseas Koreans, half of whom returned to their homeland. Fleeing from the north to evade communist influence, many North Koreans sought refuge in the South. Over the span of five years, from about a year before liberation to about four years after, the South Korean population grew by more than 4.3 million people. Seoul became a vibrant hub, teeming with overseas Koreans, North Korean refugees, and people from the local provinces who dreamed of a new politics for their country.
Along the Cheonggyecheon Stream in Seoul, stalls emerged offering munitions from the Japanese army, household items abandoned by the Japanese, and rations released by the U.S. Military Administration. Amidst this, street food vendors sold delicacies such as sirutteok (steamed rice cake), bindae tteok (mung bean pancake), gomtang (beef bone soup), seolleongtang (ox bone soup), sundaetguk (sausage soup), seonjitguk (blood-curd soup), and makgeolli (unrefined rice wine). The stalls lacked any organizational structure, creating a chaotic atmosphere along the stream. Street food vendors, tobacco sellers, newspaper stands, and general merchandise peddlers proliferated like a swarm of spiders, populating every street and alley.
3. Bindae-tteok (mung bean pancake): Street Food in Liberated Space
On August 15, 1945, colonial Korea was liberated, but life for Koreans was little better than during the colonial period. Korea was divided along the 38th parallel, and trusteeship was imposed by the U.S. military in the south and the Soviet military in the north. At the time of liberation, there were an estimated 5 million overseas Koreans, half of whom returned to their homeland. Fleeing from the north to evade communist influence, many North Koreans sought refuge in the South. Over the span of five years, from about a year before liberation to about four years after, the South Korean population grew by more than 4.3 million people. Seoul became a vibrant hub, teeming with overseas Koreans, North Korean refugees, and people from the local provinces who dreamed of a new politics for their country.
Along the Cheonggyecheon Stream in Seoul, stalls emerged offering munitions from the Japanese army, household items abandoned by the Japanese, and rations released by the U.S. Military Administration. Amidst this, street food vendors sold delicacies such as sirutteok (steamed rice cake), bindae tteok (mung bean pancake), gomtang (beef bone soup), seolleongtang (ox bone soup), sundaetguk (sausage soup), seonjitguk (blood-curd soup), and makgeolli (unrefined rice wine). The stalls lacked any organizational structure, creating a chaotic atmosphere along the stream. Street food vendors, tobacco sellers, newspaper stands, and general merchandise peddlers proliferated like a swarm of spiders, populating every street and alley.
| Among them, bindae-tteok was a street food requiring minimal investment. Made from mung beans ground on a millstone and fried in oil, bindae-tteok could be enhanced with additional ingredients like pork, mung bean sprouts, and bracken. The versatile dish is also known as binjae-tteok, binja (貧者, poor people)-tteok, bindae (賓待, hospitality)-tteok, jijim, munju, and nokdu (mug bean)-tteok. Among them, the prevailing view is that it originated from ‘binja-tteok’, in which ‘binja’ means the poor, or ‘bindae’, which means hospitality. However, delving into Joseon dynasty literature suggests a more probable origin from the Chinese pronunciation of “bingjyeo (餠食者).” When people unfamiliar with Chinese characters merely mimicked the Chinese pronunciation, the terms “bindae” and “binjae” were coined, with the addition of “tteok” clearly denoting it as a food item. |  |
Until the 1970s, bindae-tteok was an affordable street food. However, with the decline in mung bean production, its cost increased. Presently, bindae-tteok is available at Gwangjang Market and cold noodle restaurants in Seoul.
4. Carp-shaped Bread Made with American Flour
The Korean War, which began with North Korea’s invasion of South Korea on June 25, 1950, subjected Korean dietary habits to severe conditions for over three years until an armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. In the midst of the worst food shortages, the presence of UN troops and relief supplies offered a lifeline, enabling both refugees and those who stayed behind to endure the challenging circumstances.
Seoul reverted to communist control on January 4, 1951, following the entry of Chinese troops into the country in November 1950 to assist the North Korean army. This period witnessed the largest displacement of people. On March 16, 1951, UN and South Korean forces reclaimed Seoul, and relief supplies were distributed in each recaptured area. These provisions included essential items like clothing and bedding, along with American foodstuffs such as wheat, sugar, and milk powder.
4. Carp-shaped Bread Made with American Flour
The Korean War, which began with North Korea’s invasion of South Korea on June 25, 1950, subjected Korean dietary habits to severe conditions for over three years until an armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. In the midst of the worst food shortages, the presence of UN troops and relief supplies offered a lifeline, enabling both refugees and those who stayed behind to endure the challenging circumstances.
Seoul reverted to communist control on January 4, 1951, following the entry of Chinese troops into the country in November 1950 to assist the North Korean army. This period witnessed the largest displacement of people. On March 16, 1951, UN and South Korean forces reclaimed Seoul, and relief supplies were distributed in each recaptured area. These provisions included essential items like clothing and bedding, along with American foodstuffs such as wheat, sugar, and milk powder.
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In the port city of Busan, which had been spared from North Korean aggression, relief supplies from the United States and Europe, including wheat, were abundant. Numerous street vendors offered pulppang, a bread introduced by the Japanese during the colonial period, made with watery flour dough and red bean paste in an iron cast. Initially consumed by impoverished Korean refugees as a makeshift meal on the streets, it transformed into bungeoppang—a popular winter street food in large South Korean cities. This variation features thin flour dough and red bean paste baked in a carp-shaped mold. |
5. War-Era Western Cuisine
Among the refugees of the Korean War were many children. Many children died of malnutrition. The Korean government, the United Nations, and American relief organizations provided “baby food” for malnourished children. This food was a dried, powdered version of milk. In the refugee camps, milk porridge was distributed, which was made by adding corn or barley flour to the milk powder and boiling it with water. Following the recapture of Seoul on September 28, 1950, nine “milk porridge feeding stations” were established, distributing this vital sustenance to 700 to 800 children, the elderly, and the sick every day.
However, milk porridge was not suitable for Koreans, who lack lactose enzymes in their intestines. Many people who ate milk porridge suffered from diarrhea and abdominal pain. Some even got food poisoning from spoiled powdered milk used in boiling the porridge. But during the war, the soaring price of rice— increasing hundreds of times—prompted children to queue up with nickel-silver pots in front of soup kitchens, eager to receive milk porridge, an American relief food.
When the Korean War broke out and the United Nations joined the conflict, the U.S. military provided emergency rations, which included chocolate placed in soldiers’ pockets. At the time, Korean children, grappling with hunger, would eagerly shout, “Give me chocolate!” upon encountering UN troops, yearning for a temporary respite from their hunger. The chocolate was American-made Hershey’s milk chocolate. While chocolate was a delicious and novel treat for Koreans who lived through the Korean War, it didn’t necessarily evoke fond memories.
Koreans born in the 1930s lived through the miserable experience of being forced to shout, “Give Me Chocolate!” at American and UN troops like beggars. They became known as the “Chocolate English Generation,” playing a crucial role in commerce during the economic development era of Park Chung-hee’s regime in the 1960s. The poignant memory of chanting “Give me chocolate!” remained etched in their minds, making them determined to “live well” despite the dictatorship and oppression of the military regime.
In the dietary history of the Korean Peninsula, the period from 1937 to 1953 witnessed the most severe food shortages due to consecutive wars of the Sino-Japanese War, the Pacific War, and the Korean War. The Japanese Government General of Korea, the military governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, and the governments of North and South Korea were unable to fully solve the problem of food shortages. They rather often opted to implement measures reminiscent of those employed by the Japanese during the colonial period to stabilize food supplies. Policies such as the campaign of reducing the rice consumption, the promotion of incorporating other grains and flour foods into rice, initiated by the Japanese Government General of Korea, persisted during the U.S. military government and the administrations of Rhee Syngman and Park Chung-hee in South Korea.
Among the refugees of the Korean War were many children. Many children died of malnutrition. The Korean government, the United Nations, and American relief organizations provided “baby food” for malnourished children. This food was a dried, powdered version of milk. In the refugee camps, milk porridge was distributed, which was made by adding corn or barley flour to the milk powder and boiling it with water. Following the recapture of Seoul on September 28, 1950, nine “milk porridge feeding stations” were established, distributing this vital sustenance to 700 to 800 children, the elderly, and the sick every day.
However, milk porridge was not suitable for Koreans, who lack lactose enzymes in their intestines. Many people who ate milk porridge suffered from diarrhea and abdominal pain. Some even got food poisoning from spoiled powdered milk used in boiling the porridge. But during the war, the soaring price of rice— increasing hundreds of times—prompted children to queue up with nickel-silver pots in front of soup kitchens, eager to receive milk porridge, an American relief food.
When the Korean War broke out and the United Nations joined the conflict, the U.S. military provided emergency rations, which included chocolate placed in soldiers’ pockets. At the time, Korean children, grappling with hunger, would eagerly shout, “Give me chocolate!” upon encountering UN troops, yearning for a temporary respite from their hunger. The chocolate was American-made Hershey’s milk chocolate. While chocolate was a delicious and novel treat for Koreans who lived through the Korean War, it didn’t necessarily evoke fond memories.
Koreans born in the 1930s lived through the miserable experience of being forced to shout, “Give Me Chocolate!” at American and UN troops like beggars. They became known as the “Chocolate English Generation,” playing a crucial role in commerce during the economic development era of Park Chung-hee’s regime in the 1960s. The poignant memory of chanting “Give me chocolate!” remained etched in their minds, making them determined to “live well” despite the dictatorship and oppression of the military regime.
In the dietary history of the Korean Peninsula, the period from 1937 to 1953 witnessed the most severe food shortages due to consecutive wars of the Sino-Japanese War, the Pacific War, and the Korean War. The Japanese Government General of Korea, the military governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, and the governments of North and South Korea were unable to fully solve the problem of food shortages. They rather often opted to implement measures reminiscent of those employed by the Japanese during the colonial period to stabilize food supplies. Policies such as the campaign of reducing the rice consumption, the promotion of incorporating other grains and flour foods into rice, initiated by the Japanese Government General of Korea, persisted during the U.S. military government and the administrations of Rhee Syngman and Park Chung-hee in South Korea.
Infokorea 2024
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.
