Culture Focus
K-Food - 2
The Birth of K-Food: History of 20th Century Korean Food
Ⅱ. Dining Scene during the Opening of Ports
1. Opening Ports and Welcoming Western Visitors
Korea opened its ports to foreign trade, starting with the signing of a treaty of friendship and trade with the United States on May 22, 1882, then with Germany and Great Britain in 1883, with Russia and Italy in 1884, and with France in 1886. Subsequently, Western diplomats, missionaries, travelers, and merchants traversed Korea's newly opened ports, arriving via China or Japan. Their encounters in Korea prompted the creation of travelogues, including works such as “Corea: The Hermit Nation,” “Ein Verschlossenes Land: Reisen nach Corea (A Closed Country: Travels to Korea),” and “Chosön, the Land of the Morning Calm; a Sketch of Korea.” For these individuals, Joseon remained a lesser-known destination compared to China and Japan.
Westerners who visited Korea were concerned about eating in a foreign country and brought important food items with them. French traveler and geographer Charles Luois Varat (1842-1893), who visited Joseon in 1888 to 1889, brought wine and even canned foie gras from a factory near the port of Bordeaux when he left France. But some Westerners were bold enough to try Korean food.
The royal (or imperial) family and government officials extended a warm welcome to their Western guests. Despite their initial awkwardness with chopsticks, the visitors courageously sampled the exotic Korean cuisine. Recognizing their guests’ discomfort with unfamiliar fare, the Koreans, people of the so-called Courteous Country of the East, invited Western cooks to prepare familiar Western dishes for their visitors.
2. Gyeongdan: A Culinary Experience in Korea for American George Foulk
George Clayton Foulk (1856-1893), an American, was a typical foreigner who explored the culinary delights of the Korean peninsula during his travels. Graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1876, he was assigned to the U.S. Asiatic Fleet, where he served for six years. His time in Japanese ports provided him with the opportunity to learn Japanese.
On his return from service in the Asiatic Fleet, Foulk received permission to travel through Siberia. From June 3 to September 8, 1882, he and two naval colleagues boarded a Mitsubishi steamship at the port of Kobe, Japan, embarking on a journey that took them through Nagasaki, Busan, Wonsan, and Vladivostok. Visits to Busan and Wonsan sparked his interest in Joseon. Upon his return, Foulk worked as a librarian at the Navy Department Archives in Washington, D.C., where he delved into the study of both Korean and Japanese. When the Korean government's diplomatic mission to the United States (bobingsa) arrived in Washington, D.C., on September 15, 1883, Foulk was appointed as a translator for the Korean mission by the U.S. government.
Foulk encountered Min Yeongik (1860-1914), the head of the mission during their meeting. On October 12, U.S. President Chester A. Arthur (1829-1886) bid farewell to the Korean mission and offered to take them on the U.S. fleet Trenton across the Atlantic to Europe and Southeast Asia before returning home. Min accepted the offer and requested that Foulk accompany him as a guide. In response, the U.S. government appointed Foulk as a naval attaché to the U.S. legation in Korea to accompany the mission. Departing from New York Harbor on December 1, Min and his party traveled through Europe and the Suez Canal, arriving in Jemulpo (modern Incheon) on May 31, 1884.
Upon their arrival in Joseon, Foulk, with the support of Min Yeongik, embarked on his first journey between September 22 and October 7, 1884, departing from Seoul and traversing Paju, Gaeseong, Ganghwa Island, Suwon, Gwangju in Gyeonggi, and returning to Seoul. Foulk’s second journey commenced from Seoul on November 1, 1884, covering Anseong, Cheonan, Gongju, Jeonju, Naju, Damyang, Namwon, Haeins a Temple, Jinju, Masan, Busan, Miryang, Daegu, Sangju, Chungju, and Icheon, concluding in Seoul on December 14 of that year. He meticulously documented his experiences in a daily journal, later published by Samuel Hawley as a book titled, Inside the Hermit Kingdom: The 1884 Korea Travel Journal of George Clayton Foulk (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2008). Foulk’s Korean journey unfolded smoothly due to the support of Min Yeongik, who held a central position of power at the time, and he received warm welcomes from local officials throughout his travels.
On November 10, 1884, Foulk arrived in Jeonju, governed by Kim Seonggeun (1835-1919). In his diary, Foulk referred to Kim as “Gamsa (監司).” Kim held the position of governor of Jeolla province from the second lunar month of 1883 to the first lunar month of 1885. Upon his arrival in Jeonju, Foulk had a meeting with Kim at the governor's office, engaging in a conversation about the conditions in their respective countries. Foulk noted in his diary that “it seemed so absurd to be asked questions like this: Are the foods of Korea more various than that of America? Is America so good a country as Korea?”
Starting at 11 a.m., Foulk strolled through the streets of Jeonju, capturing photographs. Subsequently, he conversed with the governor and observed performances by female entertainers (gisaeng) and soldiers. Likely around 3 or 4 p.m., Foulk seated himself on a tiger skin cushion on the floor and was presented with a red table (a red lacquered soban). Foulk wrote in his diary about the foods on the red table. “By the side of each was a small table on which in a brass furnace pot was a steaming hash of vegetables and meats. The dishes were about like those I’ve noted before, but this sweetmeat pile of white, brown, black, yellow, and red little notched cakes was immense. Vermicelli was the chief dish, with one of fried mochi (Japanese rice cake) cut to represent chrysanthemums, these dipped in honey when to be eaten. A wine stool was also provided.”
Starting at 11 a.m., Foulk strolled through the streets of Jeonju, capturing photographs. Subsequently, he conversed with the governor and observed performances by female entertainers (gisaeng) and soldiers. Likely around 3 or 4 p.m., Foulk seated himself on a tiger skin cushion on the floor and was presented with a red table (a red lacquered soban). Foulk wrote in his diary about the foods on the red table. “By the side of each was a small table on which in a brass furnace pot was a steaming hash of vegetables and meats. The dishes were about like those I’ve noted before, but this sweetmeat pile of white, brown, black, yellow, and red little notched cakes was immense. Vermicelli was the chief dish, with one of fried mochi (Japanese rice cake) cut to represent chrysanthemums, these dipped in honey when to be eaten. A wine stool was also provided.”
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The food that Foulk referred to as “sweetmeat little cakes” is most likely gyeongdan. Gyeongdan is a rice cake ball created by kneading glutinous rice flour in hot water, shaping it into a ball, boiling it, and then rolling it in various colored ingredients such as beans, red beans, sesame seeds, dates, and cinnamon. Foulk’s use of the word “notched” likely describes the texture of the colored ingredients. Given the presence of five colors, it is plausible that it was osaek gyeongdan (five-colored rice cake balls). |
3. Goldongmyeon (buckwheat noodles): A Culinary Experience in Korea for Roosevelt Alice
Foulk wrote that he ate “vermicelli” and that it was “the chief dish.” But did he really eat vermicelli? Vermicelli is a type of pasta with thinner noodles than spaghetti. It's improbable that such pasta would have been served in the provincial capital of Jeolla province in November 1884. When Foulk met Kim Seonggeun the day before the meal, he mentioned that he had had vermicelli.
The “vermicelli” Foulk ate was probably thin buckwheat noodles typically served at the end of banquets at the Joseon royal court or government offices. In modern times, when Koreans think of buckwheat noodles, they often associate them with cold noodles (naengmyeon). However, the buckwheat noodles served at royal banquets were different and were mixed with Korean soy sauce, known as “goldong myeon,” signifying buckwheat noodles mixed with various ingredients.
Foulk wrote that he ate “vermicelli” and that it was “the chief dish.” But did he really eat vermicelli? Vermicelli is a type of pasta with thinner noodles than spaghetti. It's improbable that such pasta would have been served in the provincial capital of Jeolla province in November 1884. When Foulk met Kim Seonggeun the day before the meal, he mentioned that he had had vermicelli.
The “vermicelli” Foulk ate was probably thin buckwheat noodles typically served at the end of banquets at the Joseon royal court or government offices. In modern times, when Koreans think of buckwheat noodles, they often associate them with cold noodles (naengmyeon). However, the buckwheat noodles served at royal banquets were different and were mixed with Korean soy sauce, known as “goldong myeon,” signifying buckwheat noodles mixed with various ingredients.
| Naengmyeon is cold noodles. Buckwheat noodles were usually served in cold soup or kimchi juice or mixed with red chili paste (gochujang). Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea, is renowned for serving cold buckwheat noodles in a broth (mul-naengmyeon), while Hamhung, located on the east coast, is known for its spicy version (bibim-naengmyeon). Pyeongyang naengmyeon is crafted from buckwheat flour, kneaded and pressed into thin noodles, and served in cabbage kimchi juice, meat broth, or radish water kimchi (dongchimi). Hamheung naengmyeon, made with kneaded potato starch, features lean cuts of beef, pork, chicken, pollock, flounder, and skate as garnish. In contrast to Pyeongyang and Hamheung naengmyeon, goldongmyeon held its status as a staple dish for royal and governmental events. |  |
Goldongmyeon is featured on a menu from the Korean Empire, archived at the New York Public Library in the United States. This historical document was donated by Alice Lee Roosevelt (1884-1980), the daughter of Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), the 26th President of the United States. Alice Roosevelt inscribed the back of the menu with the following details: “Menu-Miss Roosevelt (Alice Lee). Luncheon at the Palace, Sept 20. The emperor is present. This was the first occasion on which he dined in public with a foreign lady.” Notably, it was uncommon for the emperor to attend banquets with Western guests, often opting to convey greetings instead. In another notation, Alice recorded, “We enjoyed Korean food served on plates and bowls adorned with imperial patterns. The items I used were graciously presented to me as gifts, and upon parting, both the emperor and the crown prince bestowed upon me photographs of themselves.”
At the upper center of the menu is the gilded imperial emblem of the Joseon dynasty—the plum pattern. Directly beneath it is the menu, inscribed in the traditional style of that era, reading from right to left and from top to bottom.
The foods from the right side of the top row were listed as, “yeolgujatang (royal hot pot), goldongmyeon (soy sauce noodles), sueojeung (steamed trout), pyeonyuk (slices of boiled meat), jeonyueo (grilled fish), jeonbokcho (stir-fried abalone), hwayangjeok (brochette),” constituting the main dishes of the menu. “Chojang under pyeonyuk and jeonyueo refers to vinegar in soy sauce, serving as a condiment for these two dishes. Gaeja beneath jeonbokcho and hwayangyeok is a dipping sauce for these particular dishes.
Deserts are as follows: Hubyeong (thick rice cake), yaksik (sweet rice with nuts and jujubes), suksilgwa (a category of Korean confection consisting of fruits cooked, mashed, and shaped), saengni (pear), saengnyul (chestnut), grape, ripe persimmon, jeonggwa (fruit cooked in honey), wonsobyeong (honey water drink with rice cake balls). baekcheong (honey), listed under hubyeong, was for dipping the rice cake. Jangchimchae serves as a side dish accompanying the main course, featuring a variety of kimchi with vegetables in soy sauce.
There is no definitive evidence regarding the way these dishes would have been presented at the royal round table. If served simultaneously, it would necessitate an exceptionally large table with correspondingly diminutive utensils. Imperial banquets typically featured over twenty dishes presented at once on a sizable, lacquered, short-legged round table.
On April 28, 1901, Emperor Gojong hosted a banquet to commemorate the 71st birthday of Empress Dowager Myeongheon (1831-1904), the second consort of King Heonjong (1827-1849, r. 1834-1849), featuring an array of twenty-five dishes presented on a single table. Documented as the menu of the Korean Empire under the title “The Record of the Food at the Imperial Banquet on April 28, 1901,” the setting for this grand event was meticulously recorded. Each line beneath the name of the food in the list indicates that various dishes were served in a single bowl.
Within the recorded menu, the main dishes, including stew, hot noodles, cold noodles, and mung bean noodles, are listed toward the end. In contrast, the main dishes for Alice Roosevelt's menu, yeolgujatang and goldongmyeon, took precedence. This suggests a probable sequence in which the luncheon between Emperor Gojong and Alice Roosevelt unfolded: the two main dishes were likely served first, followed by fish and meat dishes, then rice cakes and sweets, and finally fruits, jeonggwa (candied fruit), and wonsobyeong (honey punch with sweet rice balls).
Deserts are as follows: Hubyeong (thick rice cake), yaksik (sweet rice with nuts and jujubes), suksilgwa (a category of Korean confection consisting of fruits cooked, mashed, and shaped), saengni (pear), saengnyul (chestnut), grape, ripe persimmon, jeonggwa (fruit cooked in honey), wonsobyeong (honey water drink with rice cake balls). baekcheong (honey), listed under hubyeong, was for dipping the rice cake. Jangchimchae serves as a side dish accompanying the main course, featuring a variety of kimchi with vegetables in soy sauce.
There is no definitive evidence regarding the way these dishes would have been presented at the royal round table. If served simultaneously, it would necessitate an exceptionally large table with correspondingly diminutive utensils. Imperial banquets typically featured over twenty dishes presented at once on a sizable, lacquered, short-legged round table.
On April 28, 1901, Emperor Gojong hosted a banquet to commemorate the 71st birthday of Empress Dowager Myeongheon (1831-1904), the second consort of King Heonjong (1827-1849, r. 1834-1849), featuring an array of twenty-five dishes presented on a single table. Documented as the menu of the Korean Empire under the title “The Record of the Food at the Imperial Banquet on April 28, 1901,” the setting for this grand event was meticulously recorded. Each line beneath the name of the food in the list indicates that various dishes were served in a single bowl.
Within the recorded menu, the main dishes, including stew, hot noodles, cold noodles, and mung bean noodles, are listed toward the end. In contrast, the main dishes for Alice Roosevelt's menu, yeolgujatang and goldongmyeon, took precedence. This suggests a probable sequence in which the luncheon between Emperor Gojong and Alice Roosevelt unfolded: the two main dishes were likely served first, followed by fish and meat dishes, then rice cakes and sweets, and finally fruits, jeonggwa (candied fruit), and wonsobyeong (honey punch with sweet rice balls).
Goldongmyeon, which Faulk called “Korean pasta, vermicelli,” was also served at the luncheon between Gojong and Alice Roosevelt. The ingredients of naengmyeon (cold noodles) appeared in the Record of the Food at the Imperial Banquet were 30 coils of buckwheat noodles, a quarter of beef sirloin, five eggs, a handful of ground pepper, a handful of perilla powder, two spoonful of soy sauce, two spoonful of sesame oil, and three scallion roots. If the goldongmyeon served at the royal luncheon was made with the same ingredients, you can imagine the following recipe: Soy sauce (Korean soy sauce), sesame oil, and black pepper would be added to the noodles to season them and they would be served in a bowl, garnished with thinly sliced beef sirloin and fried egg yolk and sprinkled with finely chopped scallions and perilla powder.
After the 18th century mul-naengmyeon gained popularity, featuring buckwheat noodles served in a clear, refreshing broth made with dongchimi (radish water kimchi), particularly in Pyeongyang and Haeju. During the reign of King Sunjo (1790-1834, r. 1800-1834), numerous noodle shops selling buckwheat noodles emerged near the palace in Seoul. Unlike wheat, with its limited midsummer harvesting period in specific regions, buckwheat boasted a short growing season of two to three months after summer sowing and thrived in various soils. Due to its widespread availability compared to wheat, buckwheat became the primary ingredient for noodles in the late 18th century.
During winter, when dongchimi (radish water kimchi) or cabbage kimchi was available, buckwheat noodles were incorporated into the broth. In seasons other than winter, bibim-naengmyeon (spicy buckwheat noodles) was prepared by mixing noodles with soy sauce, sesame oil, and either pepper or red pepper powder. Onmyeon, featuring buckwheat noodles served in a warm beef broth, also gained popularity. The reaction of Alice Roosevelt to goldongmyeon, King Gojong’s preferred dish, remains unknown.
4. Lost 100 Years of K-Food
On October 1, 1910, the Korean Empire was annexed by Japan, resulting in the establishment of the Japanese Government General of Korea. Following this annexation, the Hhwa-Yyang (Japanese-Western) eclectic cuisine developed in Japan found its way to the Korean peninsula, where it was introduced as Western food and marketed by the Japanese. The term “Hwa (和)” signifies Japan, while “Yyang (洋)” represents the West. In the early 1900s, various forms of “Hhwa-Yyang” cuisine emerged in Japan, characterized by dishes prepared in a Western style but with the visual aesthetics of Japanese cuisine, those seasoned with traditional Japanese soy sauce but incorporating Western elements like mustard and pepper, and creations featuring Japanese ingredients prepared using Western cooking techniques and seasonings.
While history doesn’'t entertain “what ifs,” it’s intriguing to ponder whether, in the absence of Japanese imperialism, a “KoreanWestern eclectic cuisine” might have emerged with Western recipes a century ago. Goldongmyeon, savored by Foulk and Alice Roosevelt, could have potentially been fused with pasta or other elements to give rise to innovative culinary creations. Unfortunately, the Korean peninsula never had the opportunity for such experimentation. Now, a century later, Korean cuisine has gained popularity in the West. I refer to the era between the opening of ports and the demise of the Korean Empire as the “lost 100 years of K-food.”
After the 18th century mul-naengmyeon gained popularity, featuring buckwheat noodles served in a clear, refreshing broth made with dongchimi (radish water kimchi), particularly in Pyeongyang and Haeju. During the reign of King Sunjo (1790-1834, r. 1800-1834), numerous noodle shops selling buckwheat noodles emerged near the palace in Seoul. Unlike wheat, with its limited midsummer harvesting period in specific regions, buckwheat boasted a short growing season of two to three months after summer sowing and thrived in various soils. Due to its widespread availability compared to wheat, buckwheat became the primary ingredient for noodles in the late 18th century.
During winter, when dongchimi (radish water kimchi) or cabbage kimchi was available, buckwheat noodles were incorporated into the broth. In seasons other than winter, bibim-naengmyeon (spicy buckwheat noodles) was prepared by mixing noodles with soy sauce, sesame oil, and either pepper or red pepper powder. Onmyeon, featuring buckwheat noodles served in a warm beef broth, also gained popularity. The reaction of Alice Roosevelt to goldongmyeon, King Gojong’s preferred dish, remains unknown.
4. Lost 100 Years of K-Food
On October 1, 1910, the Korean Empire was annexed by Japan, resulting in the establishment of the Japanese Government General of Korea. Following this annexation, the Hhwa-Yyang (Japanese-Western) eclectic cuisine developed in Japan found its way to the Korean peninsula, where it was introduced as Western food and marketed by the Japanese. The term “Hwa (和)” signifies Japan, while “Yyang (洋)” represents the West. In the early 1900s, various forms of “Hhwa-Yyang” cuisine emerged in Japan, characterized by dishes prepared in a Western style but with the visual aesthetics of Japanese cuisine, those seasoned with traditional Japanese soy sauce but incorporating Western elements like mustard and pepper, and creations featuring Japanese ingredients prepared using Western cooking techniques and seasonings.
While history doesn’'t entertain “what ifs,” it’s intriguing to ponder whether, in the absence of Japanese imperialism, a “KoreanWestern eclectic cuisine” might have emerged with Western recipes a century ago. Goldongmyeon, savored by Foulk and Alice Roosevelt, could have potentially been fused with pasta or other elements to give rise to innovative culinary creations. Unfortunately, the Korean peninsula never had the opportunity for such experimentation. Now, a century later, Korean cuisine has gained popularity in the West. I refer to the era between the opening of ports and the demise of the Korean Empire as the “lost 100 years of K-food.”
Infokorea 2024
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2024 issue was 'K-FoodEducation in Korea'.
