Culture Focus
The Development of Korea’s Traditional Clothing Culture - 1
Changes in Traditional Korean Dress over Time
In a materialistically affluent society, the concern for higher quality goes hand in hand with the pursuit of beauty. As modern people are consuming beauty in a cultural space driven by a psychology of fascination with beautiful things, the pursuit of beauty is becoming ever more important. The exchange of items as commodities of value, and the aesthetic quest to sensibly express the beauty of those items to satisfy desires, has ancient origins. Among these commodities, clothing has assumed a role as an object of cultural consumption that combines aesthetic vision at the peak of materialism in the pursuit of beauty.
Historically, what meaning and form did Korean traditional clothing have? What are the cultural characteristics of such traditional Korean clothing? One could say that understanding the evolution of the traditional clothing of Koreans means examining one cross-section of Korean traditional culture. In addition, the various types and forms clothing has taken over time are not only indicative of a complex culture, but also reveal a person’s place in traditional society.
Traditional clothing refers to clothing that has long been worn in a culture, and which is still being worn in the present. Traditional clothing has been passed down through the history of Korea, and since it was history that created and developed that clothing, let's examine the long historical changes in clothing’s form by classifying these changes by era.
To begin, the basic composition of Korean traditional clothing is the kaftan style, with extensions for both arms and fastened in the front. This kaftan style is comfortable to wear and move about in, especially in Eastern culture where a sitting culture based on the home developed. Historically speaking, Korean culture has pursued the basic necessities of food, clothing, and shelter centered on agricultural. Thus, a culture developed wherein one settled in a single place over several generations. Further, a singular housing culture also developed with the ondol, an under-floor heating system. In a Korean house, the central point in terms of warmth was the anbang with its ondol, which became the center of the residence in the developing sitting culture. The centrally located anbang was the place for the family to eat, sleep, and take their leisure.
The development of Korea’s unique sitting culture also influenced the form of its clothing, and the traditional hanbok was designed to be comfortable to wear while suited to a seated lifestyle. The hanbok pants traditionally worn by men had ample space in them, and this extra space was very suited to a seated life. The woman’s traditional skirt (chima) was long and also well-suited for sitting, and its form can be said to be both aesthetically pleasing and ergonomically comfortable. Korean traditional clothing was made in close connection with living culture and was traditionally worn in everyday life. However, with the introduction of Western culture and the transformation of sitting culture to standing culture, Korea’s traditional attire, designed for use in a sitting culture, came to be recognized as uncomfortable for daily life. Today, traditional clothing long worn by Koreans has mixed with Western-style dress to form contemporary Korean clothing culture. There are several factors determining the form of Korean and Western dress, and we compared their relationship with their respective housing cultures, which have many linkages with clothing.
Historically, what meaning and form did Korean traditional clothing have? What are the cultural characteristics of such traditional Korean clothing? One could say that understanding the evolution of the traditional clothing of Koreans means examining one cross-section of Korean traditional culture. In addition, the various types and forms clothing has taken over time are not only indicative of a complex culture, but also reveal a person’s place in traditional society.
Traditional clothing refers to clothing that has long been worn in a culture, and which is still being worn in the present. Traditional clothing has been passed down through the history of Korea, and since it was history that created and developed that clothing, let's examine the long historical changes in clothing’s form by classifying these changes by era.
To begin, the basic composition of Korean traditional clothing is the kaftan style, with extensions for both arms and fastened in the front. This kaftan style is comfortable to wear and move about in, especially in Eastern culture where a sitting culture based on the home developed. Historically speaking, Korean culture has pursued the basic necessities of food, clothing, and shelter centered on agricultural. Thus, a culture developed wherein one settled in a single place over several generations. Further, a singular housing culture also developed with the ondol, an under-floor heating system. In a Korean house, the central point in terms of warmth was the anbang with its ondol, which became the center of the residence in the developing sitting culture. The centrally located anbang was the place for the family to eat, sleep, and take their leisure.
The development of Korea’s unique sitting culture also influenced the form of its clothing, and the traditional hanbok was designed to be comfortable to wear while suited to a seated lifestyle. The hanbok pants traditionally worn by men had ample space in them, and this extra space was very suited to a seated life. The woman’s traditional skirt (chima) was long and also well-suited for sitting, and its form can be said to be both aesthetically pleasing and ergonomically comfortable. Korean traditional clothing was made in close connection with living culture and was traditionally worn in everyday life. However, with the introduction of Western culture and the transformation of sitting culture to standing culture, Korea’s traditional attire, designed for use in a sitting culture, came to be recognized as uncomfortable for daily life. Today, traditional clothing long worn by Koreans has mixed with Western-style dress to form contemporary Korean clothing culture. There are several factors determining the form of Korean and Western dress, and we compared their relationship with their respective housing cultures, which have many linkages with clothing.
In addition, historical changes were also factors in the form of Korean traditional clothing. During the periods of the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla (ca. 300–935 CE), Goryeo (935– 1392), and Joseon (1392–1910)—even into the years of opening to the West after 1876—all of which form the historical background of Korea, the system of dress had ritual elements. What’s more, the system of clothing also played a role in maintaining social order amidst the numerous controversies and conflicts that arose over changes in clothing form. In Korean society, there were clear class distinctions, and it can be said that the traditional clothes worn based on one’s social status had cultural characteristics that reflected the social background of the period.
In their origins as northern horsemen, Koreans wore tightfitting jeogori (a type of jacket) and trousers. Garments that were close to the body were convenient for horse-riding. This type of clothing was well-suited to hunting and for protection from the cold. The jeogori, which came down to the hips, had both warmth and functionality, and the shoes with raised neck were also appropriate for fending off the cold. The traditional attire worn by Koreans is a reflection of their daily life, natural environment, and culture.
Looking at records of pre-Three Kingdoms’ Korean dress, the Dongsa gangmok 東史綱目 (Outline of the History of Korea, 1790), records that during the Gija Joseon 箕子朝鮮 era (a state and period steeped in myth but attributed to the first millennium BCE), “Dangun taught the people how to braid their hair and the use of topknots (gaesu). It was at this time that the systems of rank, gender roles, food, and shelter came into being.” Further, in the “Dongyi chuan” 東夷傳 (Biography of the Eastern Barbarians, i.e., those residing in the region of the Korean Peninsula) section of the Chinese history San guo zhi 三 國志 (Record of the Three Kingdoms, 3rd c.) it states, “Their [the Eastern Barbarians’] garments are clean, and their hair is worn long. For dress, they weave a wide hemp fabric (gwangpok sepo), and their laws are particularly strict.” As for the attire of Buyeo (a proto-Korean kingdom whose dates are estimated at the 2nd century BCE-ca. 500 CE), this is described, “They [the Buyeo people] favor the wearing of white clothes. They wear white po 袍 [an upper garment] with large sleeves, with leather shoes and pants.” In the “Dongyi chuan” 東夷傳 (Biography of Eastern Barbarians) of the Jin shu 晋書 (Book of Jin, 648), it says of the Mahan (a polity and people on what is now the central Korean Peninsula in the early centuries CE), “The yeongju 纓珠 [a type of bead] is honored and hung on clothes, used to adorn the hair, and hung from the ears,” and it also relates how they raised silkworms from whose silk they wove clothing. Therefore, before the Three Kingdoms period, Koreans made silk fabric by sericulture, had a penchant for white clothes, wore trousers, and possessed a basic structure of attire that included hair ornaments and leather footwear.
The jeogori and durumagi were worn as upper garments (jackets). Their collars were tied in the front, and they were fastened and adjusted by a band secured around the waist. The chima (skirt) was a bottom worn primarily by women, with the shape long enough to touch the ground when secured at the waist as the length of the jeogori was long. As for the chima’s shape, it could take various forms—some with fine pleats, some with decorative bands, some made of striped cloth. Trousers (baji), along with the jeogori, were basic attire of both men and women, but were used as undergarments among the upper class to support their skirts. For practicality and mobility, the lower classes wore short skirts that revealed the pants. The upper classes wore wide, long pants, while the lower classes wore narrow, short pants, which might vary according to one’s rank and social status. The form of the official headgear emerged from the practical need to protect the head from the natural environment, and it changed over time to serve various roles and functions, such as identification and ritual performance.
The Unified Silla era (668–ca. 892) that succeeded the Three Kingdoms period witnessed the introduction of Chinese-style clothing in the context of other political, social, and cultural changes, which transformed the unique indigenous clothing structure of the peninsula. Of particular note, during the Unified Silla period, King Heungdeok (r. 826–836) ordered prohibitions on certain types of garments in order to eliminate extravagance in dress and to affirm class distinctions. Ancient records confirm that clothing-related laws were enforced during this period, evidence that clothing style was an important aspect of traditional society and culture. The Unified Silla period also saw the establishment of the Gukhak (or State Confucian Academy) to instruct the Confucian canon and Chinese writing as part of an effort to ensure political stability, as well as the adoption and efflorescence of Buddhism. Silla’s class system, the so-called bonerank system (golpum jedo), was highly discriminatory, dividing the populace into six ranks or classes based on hereditary lineage. Clothing played a key role in delineating one’s rank and class in Silla society. During the Unified Silla period, in addition to the basic items of men and women’s dress passed on from the Three Kingdoms period—the jeogori and baji (trousers)—the variety of clothing accessories diversified, to include items worn over the jeogori and baji, such as the dallyeong (a round-necked robe), the baedang (a sleeveless garment worn by men and women), and the pyo 裱, a lengthy, shawl-like accessory worn by women from behind the neck and over to the chest. The Unified Silla era, which witnessed a heyday in the development of various garments, can thus be called the era of the development of dress styles.
Socially, with the rise of Silhak, a Confucian reform movement with origins in the 17th century, Korea’s rigid status system based on heredity began to be challenged by those with economic knowhow, and the phenomenon of ostentation and luxury appeared. The po worn by men, which had been a reserve of the upper class, came also to be worn by the lower classes. Women’s fashion styles also changed, with the appearance of the resplendent gache (an ornamental wig of human hair then decorated with accessories) hair styles, and with upper garments brought as close to the body as possible, while the lower garment expanded greatly. This style of dress showcased a woman’s sexuality and sensuality, and along with this various undergarment and accessory styles also emerged. This new form of clothing culture was an object of controversy in traditional society. Joseon period dress can be broadly divided into royal court attire and everyday attire.
A. Royal Court Attire
Court dress varied in type and form depending on the position and context of the wearer. The king and queen had particular attire for important court events, such as weddings and rituals of state.
1) ceremonial attire of the king (myeonbok)
Royal attire in the Joseon period can be distinguished according to both period and ritual in question, but the attire always included a cap (gwanmo), though the form of the po (upper garment) and cap varied. In general terms, the king’s ceremonial attire (or myeonbok) can be divided into headgear, the myeollyugwan 冕旒 冠 (mortar-board shaped crown), and the robe, or gonbok 袞服. More specifically, the ceremonial attire comprised a main robe (ui 衣), a lower, skirt-like garment (sang 裳) worn beneath the robe, the pyeseul 蔽膝 (an ornamental knee covering), ornamental waist belt (hyeokdae 革帶), large sash (daedae 大帶), jade pendants (paeok 佩玉), plaited tassel (su 綬), red silk socks (mal 襪), red shoes with silk lining (seok 舃), and the gyu 圭 (a slab of jade carried like a scepter). As the myeollyugwan was worn with the full ceremonial attire, it was the representative headgear of the king. The number of strings (myeonnyu 冕旒) hung on the front and back of the flat plate of the crown (called the pyeoncheonpan 平天板) varied.
2) ceremonial attire of the queen (jeokui)
In the Joseon period, there were various types of po worn by the highest court ladies. The queen's attire, formal and dignified in its form, included ornaments and hair accessories befitting her royal status. The formal robe (jeokui) worn by the queen was embroidered with a pheasant pattern. Included as well were the jungdan 中單 (a white inner coat), vest (baeja 褙子), shoulder sash (hapi 霞帔), large sash (daedae 大帶), jade waist belt (okhyeokdae 玉革帶), plaited tassel (su 綬), jade pendants (okpae 玉佩), red silk socks (mal 襪), red shoes with silk lining (seok 舃), and jade gyu (okgyu 玉圭). The shoulder sash (hapi) was embroidered with a pheasant pattern on a field of blue and was draped over the neck and hung from the back and over to the bottom of the breastplate in such manner that the two widths did not overlap. On the queen’s chest, it hung down to the end of the skirt in decorative effect.
In their origins as northern horsemen, Koreans wore tightfitting jeogori (a type of jacket) and trousers. Garments that were close to the body were convenient for horse-riding. This type of clothing was well-suited to hunting and for protection from the cold. The jeogori, which came down to the hips, had both warmth and functionality, and the shoes with raised neck were also appropriate for fending off the cold. The traditional attire worn by Koreans is a reflection of their daily life, natural environment, and culture.
Looking at records of pre-Three Kingdoms’ Korean dress, the Dongsa gangmok 東史綱目 (Outline of the History of Korea, 1790), records that during the Gija Joseon 箕子朝鮮 era (a state and period steeped in myth but attributed to the first millennium BCE), “Dangun taught the people how to braid their hair and the use of topknots (gaesu). It was at this time that the systems of rank, gender roles, food, and shelter came into being.” Further, in the “Dongyi chuan” 東夷傳 (Biography of the Eastern Barbarians, i.e., those residing in the region of the Korean Peninsula) section of the Chinese history San guo zhi 三 國志 (Record of the Three Kingdoms, 3rd c.) it states, “Their [the Eastern Barbarians’] garments are clean, and their hair is worn long. For dress, they weave a wide hemp fabric (gwangpok sepo), and their laws are particularly strict.” As for the attire of Buyeo (a proto-Korean kingdom whose dates are estimated at the 2nd century BCE-ca. 500 CE), this is described, “They [the Buyeo people] favor the wearing of white clothes. They wear white po 袍 [an upper garment] with large sleeves, with leather shoes and pants.” In the “Dongyi chuan” 東夷傳 (Biography of Eastern Barbarians) of the Jin shu 晋書 (Book of Jin, 648), it says of the Mahan (a polity and people on what is now the central Korean Peninsula in the early centuries CE), “The yeongju 纓珠 [a type of bead] is honored and hung on clothes, used to adorn the hair, and hung from the ears,” and it also relates how they raised silkworms from whose silk they wove clothing. Therefore, before the Three Kingdoms period, Koreans made silk fabric by sericulture, had a penchant for white clothes, wore trousers, and possessed a basic structure of attire that included hair ornaments and leather footwear.
1. Formative and Mature Periods of Korean Clothing Culture (37 BCE–917 CE)
The Three Kingdoms period can be seen as the formative period of Korean traditional clothing culture. The shape and type of clothing worn during the Three Kingdoms period can be observed in Goguryeo tomb murals. Seen in the subjects of the Goguryeo tomb murals are the types, patterns, and ornaments of both Korean men’s and women’s clothing of the period. Since no actual clothing from the Three Kingdoms period survives and our sources are largely limited to written records, the Goguryeo tomb murals are invaluable in what they can teach us about Korean traditional clothing culture.The jeogori and durumagi were worn as upper garments (jackets). Their collars were tied in the front, and they were fastened and adjusted by a band secured around the waist. The chima (skirt) was a bottom worn primarily by women, with the shape long enough to touch the ground when secured at the waist as the length of the jeogori was long. As for the chima’s shape, it could take various forms—some with fine pleats, some with decorative bands, some made of striped cloth. Trousers (baji), along with the jeogori, were basic attire of both men and women, but were used as undergarments among the upper class to support their skirts. For practicality and mobility, the lower classes wore short skirts that revealed the pants. The upper classes wore wide, long pants, while the lower classes wore narrow, short pants, which might vary according to one’s rank and social status. The form of the official headgear emerged from the practical need to protect the head from the natural environment, and it changed over time to serve various roles and functions, such as identification and ritual performance.
The Unified Silla era (668–ca. 892) that succeeded the Three Kingdoms period witnessed the introduction of Chinese-style clothing in the context of other political, social, and cultural changes, which transformed the unique indigenous clothing structure of the peninsula. Of particular note, during the Unified Silla period, King Heungdeok (r. 826–836) ordered prohibitions on certain types of garments in order to eliminate extravagance in dress and to affirm class distinctions. Ancient records confirm that clothing-related laws were enforced during this period, evidence that clothing style was an important aspect of traditional society and culture. The Unified Silla period also saw the establishment of the Gukhak (or State Confucian Academy) to instruct the Confucian canon and Chinese writing as part of an effort to ensure political stability, as well as the adoption and efflorescence of Buddhism. Silla’s class system, the so-called bonerank system (golpum jedo), was highly discriminatory, dividing the populace into six ranks or classes based on hereditary lineage. Clothing played a key role in delineating one’s rank and class in Silla society. During the Unified Silla period, in addition to the basic items of men and women’s dress passed on from the Three Kingdoms period—the jeogori and baji (trousers)—the variety of clothing accessories diversified, to include items worn over the jeogori and baji, such as the dallyeong (a round-necked robe), the baedang (a sleeveless garment worn by men and women), and the pyo 裱, a lengthy, shawl-like accessory worn by women from behind the neck and over to the chest. The Unified Silla era, which witnessed a heyday in the development of various garments, can thus be called the era of the development of dress styles.
2. A Period of mélange: Korean Traditional Clothing Culture (918–1391)
The Goryeo period may be characterized as one of mélange for Korean dress culture, as Korea’s traditional clothing style changed and adopted different forms in the course of its diplomatic intercourse with China. Regarding clothing styles of the Goryeo period (918–1391), textual sources, paintings, and excavated textile remnants currently in museum collections provide us insight into Goryeo-period dress. The Goryeo dynasty inherited the traditions of Goguryeo, while at the same time maintaining cordial relations with China, forming in effect a dual structure with both Chinese-style clothing, including foreign dress from China’s Tang and Song dynasties, and indigenous Korean dress. Garments of foreign origin were limited to royal dress or for the official ceremonies and duties of higher-level officials, while traditional Korean clothing was still worn in everyday life. As the traditional attire worn during the Goryeo period was fashioned of natural fabrics, hardly any have survived to the present day, though we do hve a few remnants of jeogori and po passed down as Buddhist relics and dating from the late Goryeo period.3. The Formative Period of Korean Traditional Clothing Culture (1392–1897)
The Joseon period (1392–1897) was one of maturation for Korean traditional clothing culture. It is a period that saw the establishment of royal court clothing and one discerns clear changes in everyday wear between the period before and after the upheaval of the Japanese invasions of the late 16th century. The Joseon era was a period of political, economic, social, and cultural flourishing, akin to what is called the Renaissance in the West. Of particular note is the development of genre painting (pungsokhwa), which provides us views of various types of traditional dress and aspects of daily life of the period.Socially, with the rise of Silhak, a Confucian reform movement with origins in the 17th century, Korea’s rigid status system based on heredity began to be challenged by those with economic knowhow, and the phenomenon of ostentation and luxury appeared. The po worn by men, which had been a reserve of the upper class, came also to be worn by the lower classes. Women’s fashion styles also changed, with the appearance of the resplendent gache (an ornamental wig of human hair then decorated with accessories) hair styles, and with upper garments brought as close to the body as possible, while the lower garment expanded greatly. This style of dress showcased a woman’s sexuality and sensuality, and along with this various undergarment and accessory styles also emerged. This new form of clothing culture was an object of controversy in traditional society. Joseon period dress can be broadly divided into royal court attire and everyday attire.
A. Royal Court Attire
Court dress varied in type and form depending on the position and context of the wearer. The king and queen had particular attire for important court events, such as weddings and rituals of state.
1) ceremonial attire of the king (myeonbok)
Royal attire in the Joseon period can be distinguished according to both period and ritual in question, but the attire always included a cap (gwanmo), though the form of the po (upper garment) and cap varied. In general terms, the king’s ceremonial attire (or myeonbok) can be divided into headgear, the myeollyugwan 冕旒 冠 (mortar-board shaped crown), and the robe, or gonbok 袞服. More specifically, the ceremonial attire comprised a main robe (ui 衣), a lower, skirt-like garment (sang 裳) worn beneath the robe, the pyeseul 蔽膝 (an ornamental knee covering), ornamental waist belt (hyeokdae 革帶), large sash (daedae 大帶), jade pendants (paeok 佩玉), plaited tassel (su 綬), red silk socks (mal 襪), red shoes with silk lining (seok 舃), and the gyu 圭 (a slab of jade carried like a scepter). As the myeollyugwan was worn with the full ceremonial attire, it was the representative headgear of the king. The number of strings (myeonnyu 冕旒) hung on the front and back of the flat plate of the crown (called the pyeoncheonpan 平天板) varied.
2) ceremonial attire of the queen (jeokui)
In the Joseon period, there were various types of po worn by the highest court ladies. The queen's attire, formal and dignified in its form, included ornaments and hair accessories befitting her royal status. The formal robe (jeokui) worn by the queen was embroidered with a pheasant pattern. Included as well were the jungdan 中單 (a white inner coat), vest (baeja 褙子), shoulder sash (hapi 霞帔), large sash (daedae 大帶), jade waist belt (okhyeokdae 玉革帶), plaited tassel (su 綬), jade pendants (okpae 玉佩), red silk socks (mal 襪), red shoes with silk lining (seok 舃), and jade gyu (okgyu 玉圭). The shoulder sash (hapi) was embroidered with a pheasant pattern on a field of blue and was draped over the neck and hung from the back and over to the bottom of the breastplate in such manner that the two widths did not overlap. On the queen’s chest, it hung down to the end of the skirt in decorative effect.
B. Men’s Dress
In the Joseon period, the basic dress for men comprised the upper garment (jeogori) and trousers (baji), as well as a po (a type of long coat worn over the other garments) and cap, or gwan. During the Joseon period, the types and shapes of the po varied, and the po worn could vary depending on the time and place as well as the position and status of the wearer. The representative types of po of the Joseon period included the dapho (a type of sleeveless coat), cheomni (coat with long and wide sleeves), jingnyeong (an official’s coat with wide sleeves and stiff collar), dopo (literally Daoist robe, also known as a scholar’s overcoat, a long robe with wide sleeves and straight collar), changui (an everyday robe that had a straight collar, wide sleeves, long triangular shaped gores on both sides and a vent in the center of the back panel), juui (an inner coat), nansam (a white overcoat worn by scholar-officials), and simui (literally, profound gown, an austere white robe replete with Confucian symbolism and meant for Confucian rituals).
1) cheomni 帖裏
The cheomni was pleated around the waist and connected the jeogori and chima (skirt). Its colors varied according to the wearer’s official rank. Buttons attached to one side of the cheomni’s sleeve allowed for its detachment and removal. It was a practical garment that had fine pleats around the waist so that there was no discomfort when wearing a covering po. Should the wearer be wounded in battle, the buttons could be released, with the detached sleeve then serving as a bandage.
2) dopo 道袍
The dopo was a coat for everyday wear by government officials and the Confucian gentry. It was characterized by its two layers in the back, formed by the attachment of a flap of cloth called the jeonsam to the back. In the Joseon period, horses were the mode of transport, so a slit on the back was provided to make it convenient to wear even while riding.
3) gwanmo
The gwanmo (a generic term for hat), which originated as simply a protective head covering, took on a social role in the stratified class system that characterized the Joseon period. The gwanmo could have various uses and be made of different materials and by various manufacturing methods. What’s more, its shape and composition varied by era. Among the various gwanmo worn by Koreans, the representative male hat was the so-called heungnip. Koreans wore various kinds of jingnyeong (an official’s coat with wide sleeves and stiff collar), dopo, and changui during the Joseon period, but the heungnip was a constant. The heungnip could be made of various materials, come in different brim sizes, and have different embellishing features. The heungnip (literally, black hat) had black as its base color but could include other colors depending on its purpose. The heungnip was woven from extremely thin strips of bamboo and then covered with black lacquer, though the form of the heungnip underwent various changes over time.
In the Joseon period, the basic dress for men comprised the upper garment (jeogori) and trousers (baji), as well as a po (a type of long coat worn over the other garments) and cap, or gwan. During the Joseon period, the types and shapes of the po varied, and the po worn could vary depending on the time and place as well as the position and status of the wearer. The representative types of po of the Joseon period included the dapho (a type of sleeveless coat), cheomni (coat with long and wide sleeves), jingnyeong (an official’s coat with wide sleeves and stiff collar), dopo (literally Daoist robe, also known as a scholar’s overcoat, a long robe with wide sleeves and straight collar), changui (an everyday robe that had a straight collar, wide sleeves, long triangular shaped gores on both sides and a vent in the center of the back panel), juui (an inner coat), nansam (a white overcoat worn by scholar-officials), and simui (literally, profound gown, an austere white robe replete with Confucian symbolism and meant for Confucian rituals).
1) cheomni 帖裏
The cheomni was pleated around the waist and connected the jeogori and chima (skirt). Its colors varied according to the wearer’s official rank. Buttons attached to one side of the cheomni’s sleeve allowed for its detachment and removal. It was a practical garment that had fine pleats around the waist so that there was no discomfort when wearing a covering po. Should the wearer be wounded in battle, the buttons could be released, with the detached sleeve then serving as a bandage.
2) dopo 道袍
The dopo was a coat for everyday wear by government officials and the Confucian gentry. It was characterized by its two layers in the back, formed by the attachment of a flap of cloth called the jeonsam to the back. In the Joseon period, horses were the mode of transport, so a slit on the back was provided to make it convenient to wear even while riding.
3) gwanmo
The gwanmo (a generic term for hat), which originated as simply a protective head covering, took on a social role in the stratified class system that characterized the Joseon period. The gwanmo could have various uses and be made of different materials and by various manufacturing methods. What’s more, its shape and composition varied by era. Among the various gwanmo worn by Koreans, the representative male hat was the so-called heungnip. Koreans wore various kinds of jingnyeong (an official’s coat with wide sleeves and stiff collar), dopo, and changui during the Joseon period, but the heungnip was a constant. The heungnip could be made of various materials, come in different brim sizes, and have different embellishing features. The heungnip (literally, black hat) had black as its base color but could include other colors depending on its purpose. The heungnip was woven from extremely thin strips of bamboo and then covered with black lacquer, though the form of the heungnip underwent various changes over time.
1) jeogori
The jeogori is a traditional Korean upper garment. During the Joseon period, men's jeogori hardly changed, whereas women’s jeogori changed in various ways. As for women’s jeogori, during the course of the Joseon dynasty the length of the jeogori as well as the sleeve length gradually shortened. Besides changes in the length of the jeogori and its sleeves, the collar also became in turns a woodblock collar, dangko collar, and half-dangko collar.C. Women’s Dress
2) skirt (chima)
Among women’s traditional attire in Korea, the skirt, or chima, changed the least, though its length could vary depending on the length of the jeogori. In the early part of the Joseon period the length of the chima was shorter as the jeogori was longer, but by late Joseon period, the length of the skirt had become longer as the length of the jeogori decreased. Among ceremonial skirts, their form could resemble the Western pullback skirt or bustle skirt, with wide and long shape and pleated front created through the sewing of darts.
3) undergarments (sokot)
In the silhouette of the traditional hanbok worn by women of the Joseon period the upper body appears thin while the lower body is expansive. To achieve such a silhouette, the skirt was supplemented with various functional undergarments. These undergarments not only kept out the cold, they also served various hygienic purposes. Underneath the jeogori on the upper body was a jacket-like garment called a jeoksam, or more specifically, a sokjeoksam when worn as an undergarment (sok being a pure Korean word meaning inner or interior). The sokjeogori (literally inner jeogori) worn over the sokjeoksam was typically a lined jeogori, but when it was cold, a thin layer of cotton was also added, making it more ample than the sokjeoksam. The goreum, a cloth string on the jeogori collars allowing them to be closed, was narrow and short. As far as the lower body, the undergarments included the dari sokkot (literally, underwear leggings), which s er ved as underwear, and the trouser-like gojaengi. The dansokkot, which acted as an underskirt, were wide trouser-like drawers worn over the pants. The mujigi was one variety of slip worn under the skirts of the upper classes when in formal dress. The mujigi skirt was similar in function to the Western petticoat, and it came in varying lengths and different colors, while its volume could also vary by having 3, 5, or even 7 layers. The daeshyum was another underskirt worn by the upper classes as formal wear, and it played a role in making the lower garments appear more voluminous. The daeshyum skirt, a 12-layered skirt of white linen, was an undergarment used to expand the chima and augment its beauty. To lend the daeshyum strength, it had folded pieces of changhoji (a traditional paper made of mulberry) about 3 to 4 cm. in length, wrapped into the linen.
The jeogori is a traditional Korean upper garment. During the Joseon period, men's jeogori hardly changed, whereas women’s jeogori changed in various ways. As for women’s jeogori, during the course of the Joseon dynasty the length of the jeogori as well as the sleeve length gradually shortened. Besides changes in the length of the jeogori and its sleeves, the collar also became in turns a woodblock collar, dangko collar, and half-dangko collar.C. Women’s Dress
2) skirt (chima)
Among women’s traditional attire in Korea, the skirt, or chima, changed the least, though its length could vary depending on the length of the jeogori. In the early part of the Joseon period the length of the chima was shorter as the jeogori was longer, but by late Joseon period, the length of the skirt had become longer as the length of the jeogori decreased. Among ceremonial skirts, their form could resemble the Western pullback skirt or bustle skirt, with wide and long shape and pleated front created through the sewing of darts.
3) undergarments (sokot)
In the silhouette of the traditional hanbok worn by women of the Joseon period the upper body appears thin while the lower body is expansive. To achieve such a silhouette, the skirt was supplemented with various functional undergarments. These undergarments not only kept out the cold, they also served various hygienic purposes. Underneath the jeogori on the upper body was a jacket-like garment called a jeoksam, or more specifically, a sokjeoksam when worn as an undergarment (sok being a pure Korean word meaning inner or interior). The sokjeogori (literally inner jeogori) worn over the sokjeoksam was typically a lined jeogori, but when it was cold, a thin layer of cotton was also added, making it more ample than the sokjeoksam. The goreum, a cloth string on the jeogori collars allowing them to be closed, was narrow and short. As far as the lower body, the undergarments included the dari sokkot (literally, underwear leggings), which s er ved as underwear, and the trouser-like gojaengi. The dansokkot, which acted as an underskirt, were wide trouser-like drawers worn over the pants. The mujigi was one variety of slip worn under the skirts of the upper classes when in formal dress. The mujigi skirt was similar in function to the Western petticoat, and it came in varying lengths and different colors, while its volume could also vary by having 3, 5, or even 7 layers. The daeshyum was another underskirt worn by the upper classes as formal wear, and it played a role in making the lower garments appear more voluminous. The daeshyum skirt, a 12-layered skirt of white linen, was an undergarment used to expand the chima and augment its beauty. To lend the daeshyum strength, it had folded pieces of changhoji (a traditional paper made of mulberry) about 3 to 4 cm. in length, wrapped into the linen.
4. The Era of Transformation for Korean Traditional Dress Culture (1876–1945)
The so-called enlightenment period (referring to the era of rapid socioeconomic and cultural change following Korea’s opening up to the outside world in 1876) was one of change for Korean clothing culture. The influence brought by the pragmatist thinking of Silhak scholars and the country’s Enlightenment faction brought a transformation in Korea’s stratified traditional clothing system, with its differentiation between high and low, noble and mean. The introduction of Western fashions also had a transformative effect on Korean traditional clothing. The enlightenment period revealed the limits of feudal nationalism, as new intellectuals dedicated to Silhak (or practical learning) pushed for reforms. Thus, the period of enlightenment was one in which traditional clothing and Western clothing coexisted in tandem, a key factor in the transformation of traditional Korean clothing. Through the Gapsin (1884) and then Gabo reforms (1894), King Gojong (r. 1864–1907) simplified the system of official dress. He consolidated the various versions of official po into the durumagi (a basic outer coat) that everyone could wear regardless of status. As far as military dress, Western-styled military uniforms came to replace the old, traditional ones, while Korean diplomats also began to wear Western suits. Thus it was that all manner of uniforms—official uniforms, military uniforms, even school uniforms—came to follow Western styles. A government order of 1895 that men should cut off their traditional topknots met with strong public backlash. This is because traditional Joseon society followed Confucian ideology that put great importance on filial piety, which taught that the body is inherited from the parents and should not be recklessly harmed or damaged, such as by cutting the hair. As a result, there was a sense of reluctance to cut the hair short. During this period of upheaval, traditional Korean dress underwent a cultural transformation as it mixed with Western-style dress. In the background of this transformation from traditional to Western clothing were changes in women's consciousness in the wake of social reforms and new forms of education, as well as the influence of the new media.A. Men’s Dress
1) magoja
The magoja is an outer garment worn over the jeogori. It is wider and longer than the jeogori and also longer in the sleeves. The magoja served as a sort of outer jeogori. It kept one warm and was worn by men and women of all ages.
2) durumagi
The durumagi (a simple outer coat) came to replace the various styles of po of the Joseon period. During the enlightenment era (late 19 th century), the durumagi acted much like a Western overcoat. One might wear a durumagi as formal wear, and even in summer, rather than wearing just pants and the jeogori, one might still wear a durumagi, only this one made of light linen. In winter, it become customary to wear a magoja over one’s trousers and jeogori, and then a durumagi over all this. There was even the saekdong (meaning to have wide stripes of yellow, red, and maybe blue) durumagi for children’s dress.
3) joki (vest)
The joki, or vest, was a practical addition that came with the introduction of Western suits. The vest has a pocket not found in traditional clothing, and it was fastened with buttons rather than goreum (cloth stings or straps). Its shape resembled closely the Western vest, but it was made for and worn with hanbok. Thus, the joki vest is a representative item of clothing that was introduced to Korea with the influx of Western styles but became integrated into Korean-style dress, i.e., the hanbok.
4) tosi
The tosi was a form of glove that combined practicality and fashion, and was especially popular among the upper classes. In winter, it was lined with fur for protection against the cold, while in the summer, it was woven of rattan or horsehair to prevent sweat from coming out of the wrist of the jacket. With the introduction of gloves from the West, the tosi gradually disappeared.
B. Women’s Dress
1) baeja and gatjeogori
The baeja (a type of vest) and gatjeogori (or outer jeogori) were worn over the jeogori for both warmth and decorative effect. The baeja was a sleeveless garment worn over the jeogori, and in winter it was lined with fur. The gatjeogori was essentially a jeogori for winter weather, and took the form of an overcoat worn over the jeogori.
2) jeogori
During Korea’s enlightenment era, the length of women’s jeogori reached as low as 20 cm. However, influenced by the blouses worn by Christian missionaries, the length of the jacket began to extend, from the chest down to the waist, and the width also extended out widely. The jeogori could also use brooches in place of the traditional goreum as fasteners. Girls wore the children’s saekdong jeogori.
3) chima (skirt)
In terms of the skirt, this period saw the leaf skirt (jarak chima) and one-piece short skirt (tongchima) merge. The traditional Korean skirt (jarak chima) was secured around the chest, while the one-piece short skirt called the tongchima was worn over the shoulders and took the shape of the Western men's vest. During the enlightenment period, skirts became shorter in width and length, and short tongchima were very popular. In particular, black skirts and white jeogori were often worn by female students and the new-style women, so they became symbolic symbol of so-called new woman or modern woman (sinyeoseong). As for the form of the skirt, influenced by the upper jeogori, it became fashionable to wear shorter skirts with large pleats.
4) parasols (yangsan)
The parasol was widely used as a substitute for the veils, sseugae chima (a woman’s headdress that took the form of a skirt), and long robes (jangot) that were used to cover the face in the Joseon period when gender and class distinctions were strict. Many women who removed their sseugae chima picked up parasols, but black umbrellas became popular among female students and among women in general.
5) jumeoni (pouches)
The jumeoni developed from the fact that traditional Korean clothes were without pockets for putting or storing things. Jumeoni were favored by men and women, young and old, for their practicality as places to put items as well as for their decorative appeal. There are two types of jumeoni, the angled gwijumeoni (literally, pouch with ears, names after its shape with angled protuberances on either side) and the durujumeoni (literally, round pouch, again names after its shape). Jumeoni usually had decorative embroidery, and bright colors were mainly used to give it a decorative effect as an accessory. However, over time, the use of jumeoni waned as men began to wear vests with pockets, while handbags introduced from the West gained use among women.
1) baeja and gatjeogori
The baeja (a type of vest) and gatjeogori (or outer jeogori) were worn over the jeogori for both warmth and decorative effect. The baeja was a sleeveless garment worn over the jeogori, and in winter it was lined with fur. The gatjeogori was essentially a jeogori for winter weather, and took the form of an overcoat worn over the jeogori.
2) jeogori
During Korea’s enlightenment era, the length of women’s jeogori reached as low as 20 cm. However, influenced by the blouses worn by Christian missionaries, the length of the jacket began to extend, from the chest down to the waist, and the width also extended out widely. The jeogori could also use brooches in place of the traditional goreum as fasteners. Girls wore the children’s saekdong jeogori.
3) chima (skirt)
In terms of the skirt, this period saw the leaf skirt (jarak chima) and one-piece short skirt (tongchima) merge. The traditional Korean skirt (jarak chima) was secured around the chest, while the one-piece short skirt called the tongchima was worn over the shoulders and took the shape of the Western men's vest. During the enlightenment period, skirts became shorter in width and length, and short tongchima were very popular. In particular, black skirts and white jeogori were often worn by female students and the new-style women, so they became symbolic symbol of so-called new woman or modern woman (sinyeoseong). As for the form of the skirt, influenced by the upper jeogori, it became fashionable to wear shorter skirts with large pleats.
4) parasols (yangsan)
The parasol was widely used as a substitute for the veils, sseugae chima (a woman’s headdress that took the form of a skirt), and long robes (jangot) that were used to cover the face in the Joseon period when gender and class distinctions were strict. Many women who removed their sseugae chima picked up parasols, but black umbrellas became popular among female students and among women in general.
5) jumeoni (pouches)
The jumeoni developed from the fact that traditional Korean clothes were without pockets for putting or storing things. Jumeoni were favored by men and women, young and old, for their practicality as places to put items as well as for their decorative appeal. There are two types of jumeoni, the angled gwijumeoni (literally, pouch with ears, names after its shape with angled protuberances on either side) and the durujumeoni (literally, round pouch, again names after its shape). Jumeoni usually had decorative embroidery, and bright colors were mainly used to give it a decorative effect as an accessory. However, over time, the use of jumeoni waned as men began to wear vests with pockets, while handbags introduced from the West gained use among women.
Infokorea 2023
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2023 issue was 'Hanbok'.
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2023 issue was 'Hanbok'.
