Culture Focus

1. Structure of Korean Mythology

Korean mythology is diverse and multilayered. Not only are there a great number of myths but the structure of these myths is complex and varied. In general terms, a myth (sinhwa 神話) refers to a story (hwa 話) about a god or gods (sin 神) or about a sacred being or phenomenon. The essence of the myth, then, is the element of the "divine" or "sacred." In terms of these sacred myths, Korea has a diverse spectrum, ranging from sacred beings from the absolute who created the world, to the hero who founds a nation, to village guardian deities, to gods who determine a good harvest or a good fishing catch, to the god who grants a child.

As such, Korean myths may be categorized according to how they were passed down, in other words, those that were recorded in documents and those that were relayed orally. Further, among cases of myths passed down orally, one can differentiate those that were narrated as a part of special rites or religious rituals and those whose delivery had no such special ritual context. In general, the foundation myths (geonguk sinhwa) that are recorded in documents and the shamanistic myths (musok sinhwa) that are orally transmitted in private shaman culture are the most typical of all Korean myths. Thus, while founding myths were reenacted in official memorial rites by the government, shamanistic myths were reenacted in various exorcisms in the private sphere; consequently, whereas foundation myths have become firmly established as the historical origin stories of ancient states, shamanistic myths have retained their vitality within the context of a Korean shamanist culture that continues to this day.

In terms of subject matter, Korean myths can be divided into those describing the deeds of gods who first created the world and brought order to it, myths on the emergence of divine beings who establish a new state, myths dealing with village guardian deities or ancestral gods, and myths relating the origins of the gods or spirits of shamanism.

2. The History and Development of Korean Mythology

(1) Foundation Myths
Historically, the story of Dangun, which recounts the legendary founding of the state of Gojoseon, is Korea's oldest myth. It is conjectured that the northern part of the Korean Peninsula accepted metal culture earlier than the rest of the peninsula, and that through the acquisition of this technology an ancient state was established. The Dangun myth is based on the founding of Gojoseon, the first ethnic Korean state to be established in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula some four thousand years ago. As the term reveals, Korean foundation mythology deals with the processes and personalities involved in the foundation of ancient states on the peninsula, and so the temporal context of such myths is relatively apparent.

After Gojoseon, the most famous ancient state in the northern region of the Korean Peninsula is Buyeo. The date for the emergence of the Buyeo state is estimated at around the fourth century BCE. The myths of Haemosu, Haeburu, and Geumwa are all related to Buyeo. The myth of Haemosu concerns the appearance and enthronement of Haemosu, who founded North Buyeo (Bukbuyeo), while that of Haeburu concerns the king who succeeded Haemosu, and that of Geumwa tells of the mysterious king who in turn succeeded Haeburu.

Around the first century BCE, the kingdoms of Silla (trad. 57 BCE), Goguryeo (trad. 37 BCE), and Baekje (trad. 18 BCE) emerged on the Korean Peninsula, ushering in the Three Kingdoms period. We have relatively detailed mythologies surrounding the foundation of these three kingdoms. Before the aforementioned kingdoms came to dominate the peninsula, however, there flourished numerous small polities possessing their own related myths, the most representative of which were Gaya and Tamna.

Legend has it that Bak Hyeokgeose ascended to the throne of Silla as its first king in 57 BCE; and the myth of Hyeokgeose relates his birth and subsequent enthronement. Besides the Bak (Park) clan, kings of Silla also hailed from the Seok and Kim clans. These other two clans also had their own origin myths, of which the myth of Talhae relates the origins of the Seok dynasty and that of Alji those of the Kim dynasty.

The myth of Jumong tells the story of Jumong's flight from Buyeo and the founding of Goguryeo in 37 BCE. It also relates stories about Jumong's sons, Biryu and Onjo, who moved south to found the state of Baekje.

The polity of Geumgwan Gaya, whose first king, Suro, was enthroned around the dawn of the first century CE, is considered the most representative state of the Gaya confederation of small states. The story of the polity's foundation and Suro's coronation is delivered through the myth of Suro. Jeju Island was formerly called Tamna, and the state of Tamna was divided and ruled by three dynasties, namely the Ko, Yang, and Bu clans. The story relating the emergence of these three ancestral lines of Tamna is the so-called Samseong myth ("myth of the three surnames").

Over the course of the Three Kingdoms period, the kingdom of Silla succeeded in uniting the peninsula under its rule. Silla was eventually succeeded by the Goryeo and then Joseon dynasties. Goryeo, established in 918, found it challenging to create mythical stories about the royal progenitor as had been done with the founding myths of more ancient states. However, sacred devices were used to create stories that both gave and reinforced the legitimacy of the founding king and justified the establishment of a new kingdom. The Goryeo segye (Dynastic Genealogy of Goryeo) deals with the lineage of Wanggeon, the founding king of Goryeo, and his sacred ancestors. It may be likened to the founding mythology of Goryeo.

(2) Shamanist Mythology
Korea has many more orally transmitted myths than recorded myths. Some of these orally transmitted myths were passed down via shaman rituals, while others were simply passed down orally without any specific context. Whereas foundation myths are concerned with a state or nation's official history, orally delivered myths are generally related to the religious activities and culture of the people and can be termed collectively as shamanistic mythology.

Unlike foundation myths, which are recorded mythologies, we cannot trace oral shamanistic mythologies back to the exact period of their creation. However, by analyzing the contents of these myths, one can conjecture as to their period of origin and their evolution over time. Before human society developed into a structured civilization, it was primarily the objects and phenomena of nature that attracted human interest. Myths provided answers to fundamental questions such as how the earth and heavens were created, how the stars were formed, or how and when humankind first appeared.

So-called creation myths (changse sinhwa) are concerned with the origins of the world and of human beings. Examples of this variety of myth include the Jeju legend of Seolmundae halmang (Grandma Seolmundae), which describes the creation of topographical features like islands, mountains, rivers, and lakes by giants; the Changsega (Song of the Creation of the Universe), which is about a god who appeared initially and created the world and human beings; and the Cheonjiwang bonpuri, also from Jeju, which describes the division of the heavens, the human world, and the afterlife and the appearance of the first rulers. In addition, there is the flood myth which details the ancestral origins of a new race of humans that emerged after the destruction of the original human world by a great flood.

With human advancement and the emergence of complex human societies, there arose a need to establish new rules for the new sedentary culture. To that end, a hero who had passed down and established new laws for a more settled human culture was needed. There are many hero mythologies in shamanist mythology. Examples include Jeseok bonpuri, a song about the god of fertility and the three gods governing childbirth, and the myth of Princess Bari (Bari gongju), which relates the story of a figure who first cured disease and guided the souls of the dead. These two are the most widely known myths and have been passed down in some form or other in all corners of the Korean Peninsula. They deal with the most fundamental problems of existence: life and death.

Besides these, other shamanist myths include that of Seongju puri, which deals with the home and its various spaces, and Munjeon bonpuri, which deals with the history of the deities who occupy various spaces in the home. Then there is the myth of Segyeong bonpuri, which tells the story of an agricultural deity that ascended to heaven, obtained seeds for grain, and delivered them to humans. The myth of Chilseong bonpuri concerns gods who wish for abundance and fecundity. Then there is the myth of Chasa bonpuri, which tells the story of a sort of Grim Reaper who guides the souls of the dead to the afterworld. There are many other gods in Korea whose myths are directly related to the everyday life of the people. One can say that Koreans share an intimate relationship with their gods.

Infokorea 2021
Infokorea is a magazine that introduces Korea to readers overseas, including teachers, textbook developers and other educators. The magazine offers the latest statistics on the Republic of Korea and articles that focus on Korean culture, society and history, which can be used as a reference source for textbook writers and editors and as materials for teachers to prepare for class. The theme of the 2021 issue was 'Myths of Korea'.